American and North Vietnamese Perception of War

Austin Beeler American and North Vietnamese Perceptions of War To the American Soldiers and the NVA/VC soldiers, the Vietnam War was both very similar and very different. Most of soldiers in Vietnam went into the war with a purpose, and they had a very high morale levels. Both the Americans and the NVA soldiers left with many problems. The war left most soldiers with very severe cases of mental issues. There were also many things about the war that differed to the soldiers. One was the type of patriotism, and the other was the consequences of choosing to not fight.The American soldiers were fighting with a different type of patriotism than the communist soldiers. The Vietnamese soldiers were fighting for their freedom and to protect their homeland. The Americans were fighting for their government. They went into the war completely trusting their government no matter what they thought about the conflict. The war left both sides with huge wounds that would take a long time to heal. The American soldiers left for Vietnam knowing that they have been the victors in all of the other wars and conflicts they have been in.The morale among the soldiers was high at the beginning of the war. The Vietnamese soldiers had very high morale after beating the French in 1954. One American soldier wrote a letter to his fiance that was supposed to be given to her in the unfortunate event of his death. He told his fiance that he is proud that he was even able to fight for his country, and even though the war has taken his life, he wishes that she doesn’t hate the war because of it. The soldiers that were first sent over seas were proud of what they were doing.They believed in their country and they believed that the people back home would have their back. The Vietnamese soldiers had been victorious in beating the French empire just years before the American soldiers arrived. They were in high spirits and it gave them a sense of invincibility because they just defeated a huge power. The Vietnamese soldiers were fighting for their homeland. They saw the Americans as another colonial power that was trying to move in and take control again. The soldiers knew that they could navigate the land much better than the Americans and they carefully planned their attacks.Both of the sides were patriotic, but they were patriotic in different ways. The American soldiers were patriotic in the sense of they were serving for their government and their country. They were fighting because the government told them that they need to be over there stopping the spread of communism. For the Americans it was about making their country proud. The North Vietnamese soldiers were patriotic in a completely different sense. They were fighting for their freedom. They thought that if they didn’t fight, then they would be put back down to a lower level than the Americans.Just like the French had done to them when they were in control. The soldiers were fighting to protect their fa milies back north and to save their land. They had an obvious purpose to fight, while the Americans couldn’t see how the war affected them back home. Both the Americans and the North Vietnamese soldiers left the war affected deeply. Many soldiers returned to their homes and they were severely affected by PTSD. In the book, Kein has nightmares every night that he tries to sleep. That includes the nights he was in the military, and the nights after the war was over.Kein was talking to one of this soldiers and he said â€Å"their chaotic minds, their troubled speech, revealed how cruelly they were twisted and tortured by the war†(20). The NVA soldiers watched thousands of their fellow soldiers die right beside them. Throughout the war, the NVA/VC lost over a million soldiers. Seeing that many people die affected the soldiers greatly. One of the soldiers in Keins battalion is severely depressed and is thinking about deserting the rest of the soldiers and heading home. Kein tells him its suicidal and shameful. Can saying â€Å"Suicidal? Killing myself?I’ve killed so often it wont mean a thing if I kill myself. As for the shame†¦ In all my time as a soldier, I’ve never seen anything honorable†, shows how desensitized the soldiers are. They don’t care about death anymore. Many of them embrace it because they know its coming. The American soldiers were just as scarred by the war. One of the soldiers that reflected on the war in 1984 basically said that depression kills you faster than a bullet to the head. It â€Å"eats away at you inner being. It eats away at everything that you ever learned (5). † The soldiers with depression didn’t get help from anyone.The only people they got help from were the psychiatrists they paid to go see. Both sides used drugs to help cope with the sorrows of war. The Vietnamese soldiers smoked the Rosa Canina flower, and the American soldiers smoked marijuana and used heroin. The drugs helped the soldiers deal with the depression of war. The war was a very tough place for both sides. Both countries had a very hard time recovering from the war, but the people who had to overcome the most were the soldiers. They went through so many things in war that they left Vietnam with â€Å"young shoulders that bore rather old heads (2). †

Chinas Pollution Essay

When people think about China the main thing that comes to mind is its wonderful scenery and growing economy. China has been catching up to the rest of the world by industrializing. According to the organization for economic corporation department (OECD) â€Å" Chinas Economy will overtake the U.S. as the biggest in the world by 2016†. However there are many concerns leading up to Chinas success. In the middle of China’s extraordinary economic growth and industrial growth, the energy outputs to supporting this growth has resulted in an all time high in pollution. This growth has caused China to be the most polluted country in the world. Many parts of China are suffering from water and air pollution due to coal mining and the dumping of toxic wastes. The question we ask today is what has the government done to tackle the pollution issue? Pollution in China has been a major problem for years, dating all the way back to the Mao Zedong and the Industrial Revolution. The government was so preoccupied with the growing agriculture they overlooked the situation. However with angry citizens and protesters they tried implementing different ways to protect the environment. Environmental officials finally took action, creating different laws to improve the air quality and regulate the water. Chinas economy is on a historic run relying on resources such as coal and water for their development. However Chinas increasingly polluted environment is largely due to the country’s hurried industry development causing large increase in energy consumption. This pollution problem has left a deadly impact on the people in China. Air pollution is so bad that in some parts citizens cant see the sun but because of the smoke and fog. The World Health Organization has estimated that this air pollution is responsible for 300,000 premature deaths annually. Those staggering numbers are a major problem that needs to be regulated. Chinese cities are covered in lethal cloak, which leads to water and air contamination. Nearly 500 million Chinese citizens lack the access to unsafe drinking water and 1 percent out of the 560 million breath safe air. China is thriving because of its expanding industry however by using resources such as coal. Coal is a useful resource however it is a very dir ty source and contaminates the air when burned. The industrial industry is allowing China to flourish economically but at the same time leaving a drastic impact on the people.  One of Chinas leading environmental researchers, Wang Jinnan, announced â€Å" It is a very awkward situation for the country because our greatest achievement is also our biggest burden†. This explains how resources such as coal contribute to the growing industry but also has deadly effects on the people. Chinas economy is on a historic run but is it worth putting peoples lives in jeopardy? China’s reliance on coal has an effect on the air quality. It is said that China burns more coal then the U.S., Europe and Japan combined. The sulfur dioxide that is emitted from the coal and fuel can affect breathing, cause respiratory illnesses and lung diseases. An unpublicized report done by the Chinese academy of Environmentalist planning said in estimate that yearly premature deaths attributed from outdoor pollution is on track to reach 550,000 in 2 020. This alarming statistic has China’s people worrying and curious to see what the government is up to. Air pollution not only affected the people but also the water, produce and other resources. The lack of fresh water in China evolves around the contamination of the Water due to illegal littering. In different regions in China factories and farms dump waste into the surface water. Chinas environmentalist monitors say â€Å" One- third of all river, and vast sections of Chinas great lakes†¦ have water rated grade v, the most degrading level†. As a result of this contaminated water China has the highest liver and stomach cancer deaths in the world. Water pollution is a complicated part of Chinas problem and is hard to be prevented. As a result of the dumping of wastes into main rivers and lakes many Chinese citizens don’t have fresh water to drink. Leaving many people thirsty is not a problem government official’s want for their country. In Liangqiao, a small village in China, citizens blame the Mining Corporation for the dumping of chemicals into tributaries in the Laza River. This creates for a shortage of drinking water and untenable for agricultural use. A professor in South China’s agricultural University says, â€Å" The mining company’s waste flows directly into the Laza River which runs into the Pearl River, a major source of drinking water for 12 million residents of Guangzhou city,† This is a horrific problem and the government needs to react now before it gets worse. Riots broke out in a Xinchang, city in China, over the environmental degradation. Citizens are angry at the lack of government initiative in the pollution and took matters into there own hands. One outraged villager  explained, â€Å" Our fields won’t produce grain anymore†¦we don’t dare to eat food grown from anywhere near here†. The agriculture is declining, leaving farmers with a scarce amount of good. Government officials were overlooking this problem in order to keep the economy growing. In just 30 years china has made an extraordinary development economically and with the governments help China can thrive even further by implementing environmental regulations for the people. Over the years, government officials implemented ways to help the pollution problem as well as maintaining economic development. Alarmed by the repercussions of industrialization and urbanization, Chinas environmental agencies are working on imputing laws to regulate the pollution. One of the first improvements made was the removal of lead, which was beneficial to Hong Kong by reducing their mortality rate. Recognizing the problem Chinese leaders such as Deng Xiaoping and Prime Minister Jiaboa are speaking out, telling the people about different environmental protection laws. Although there are many objectives set forth by the government to fix this pollution problem, no real noticeable actions have taken effect. The Chinese Government is more worried about the economy then the people. The most determined effort control china’s fast industrial growth was the project known as the â€Å" Green G.D.P.†, â€Å"which was an effort to create an environmental yardstick for evaluating the performance of every official in China. It recalculated the gross domestic product to reflect the cost of pollution†. This was an effort to regulate the financial loss that pollution had on the economy. However the government pulled out of the project in 2007. The Chinese government saw that the financial and economic issues that resulted from the G.D.P. such as the struggles realizing that any attempt to prevent pollution would hinder it economically. The frightened idea to interrupt China’s growing economy is a reason why China still has pollution today. In attempts to stick to their original goals to prevent pollution, China began to make continuous efforts. In Linfen, China, known as the heaviest polluted city in the word, officials have set up laws to help clean up the region. The Xiangfen County Environmental Protection Bureau announced that seven factories will close due to their environmental harm. Chinese environmentalist Yang spoke out about the factories saying,  Ã¢â‚¬Å"If they fail to meet the (pollution) goals in the first year, their superiors will raise the topic; in the second year, they will receive a formal warning; in the third year, they will be removed from post.† By threatening the closing down of factories, results in a greater up keep among factories. The only problem that would result in closing down these factories is unemployment; however, the health of the people is more important. In 2011, Toyota Motor announced that they would be making low-emission cars in China. China has the biggest market of cars and creating an environmentally safe way to market a car is upright. Further-more, in recent years, China’s attempts to help the environment have been successful and hasn’t prevented economic progression. In the City of Lizhou, the environmental conditions were horrid because of the rapid industrialization and urbanization. However, by implementing the improvement in clean water, the citizens have benefited greatly. The Lizhou Environmental Management Project set forth to invest in sewage networks, wastewater treatment plants, and waste collection stations. As a result of the advancement, wastewater treatment in the City has increased from 15 percent in 2005 to over 75 percent in 2011. The project was designed to provide clean water for poor urban areas in China. This is a stepping-stone for China and can hopefully lead to more change. China’s industry development dates all the way back to the Great Leap Forward when Mao’s goal was to increase agricultural output; with All things considered, the communist government has acknowledged the major pollution problem in the country but is slow in terminating it. It needs to stop worrying so much about the growing economy and think more about the health of its people, an issue that stems from the pollution problem in china. As the environmental situation declines, China will not only become a healthier, more appealing place to live, but also raise funding through tourism and environmental technology, garnering the economical gains that the government strives to get.

Bullying within secondary schools and education

This essay is traveling to look at strong-arming within instruction, concentrating chiefly upon secondary schools, looking at the different types of intimidation, the effects intimidation has on the victims and the toughs and what the schools and the authorities have done and are making to forestall strong-arming within schools and instruction. The UK Government defines strong-arming as ; â€Å" Repetitive, wilful or relentless behavior intended to do injury, although one – off incidents can in some instances besides be defined as intimidation ; internationally harmful behavior, carried out by an person or a group and an instability of power go forthing the individual being bullied experiencing defenceless. Bullying is emotionally or physically harmful behavior and includes ; name – naming, teasing, mocking, doing violative remarks, kicking, hitting, forcing, taking properties, inappropriate text messaging and emailing, directing violative or degrading images by phone or via the cyberspace, gossipmongering, excepting people from groups and distributing hurtful and untruthful rumor † . ( HOC 2007:7-8, Frederickson et al 2008:176-177 ) . Bullying takes many signifiers. It can be physical intimidation, this is when a kid is being pushed, beaten or thumped by bare custodies. It can affect a arm and menaces. Bullying can besides be verbal and emotional, racial or sexual. Elliott ( 1997a:2 ) â€Å" it would look that male childs are more likely to be physical in intimidation, while misss tend to be cruel verbally † . Research by Olweus ( 1993:19 ) indicates that â€Å" misss are more frequently exposed to harassment such as slandering, the spreading of rumors and exclusion from the group instead than physical onslaughts † . Olweus ( 1993 ) continues â€Å" it must be emphasised that these gender differences are general and that is some schools, misss are besides expose to physical intimidation † ( Olweus 1993:19 ) . In more recent times at that place have been instances in the UK in which misss have violently and sharply attacked other misss. An illustration of this was â€Å" 14 twelvemonth old mis s was cornered in the resort area by a pack of 10 male childs and misss. She was stripped to the waist and had to implore on her articulatio genuss to acquire her apparels back. She was pushed, punched and had her hair pulled. ‘Tell and you ‘ll acquire worse ‘ was the farewell words from one of the misss. The victim did non state until they did it once more and took exposure. When her female parent confronted the school, she was told it was merely ‘horseplay ‘ . The victim, who attempted self-destruction after the latest incident, was transferred to another school in which she is now booming † . ( Elliott 1997b:1 ) , this incident had a more positive stoping, which is non ever the instance. There have besides been deceases caused by strong-arming within schools, chiefly in secondary schools. An illustration of this was in â€Å" 2000 a 15 twelvemonth old school miss committed suicide after being bombarded with anon. calls on her nomadic phone, th e inquest into her found that she was being bullied through her nomadic phone – ‘Mobile Phone Bullying/Cyber Bullying ‘ † ( The Independent, 2000 ) . The incidence of misss being violent does look to be increasing and is a tendency that must be viewed with concern, as female toughs, particularly in groups or ‘gangs ‘ are acquiring merely as violent if non more violent so male toughs. Surveies show that strong-arming takes topographic point in every type of school. Surveies on strong-arming within schools day of the month back to the 1980 ‘s, were the first UK countrywide study was conducted by Kidscape from 1984 to 1986 with 4000 kids aged 5 to 16. The study revealed that â€Å" 68 per cent of the kids had been bullied at least one time ; 38 per cent had been bullied as least twice or had experienced a peculiarly bad incident ; 5 per cent of the kids felt it had affected their lives to the point that they had tried self-destruction, had run off, refused to travel to school or been inveterate sick † ( Elliott and Kilpatrick 1996 ) . Subsequent surveies have found really similar consequences. Research workers at Exeter University questioned 5500 kids aged 13 and found â€Å" that 26 per cent of male childs and 34 per cent of misss had been afraid of toughs sometime in their lives † ( Balding 1996 ) . Strong-arming calls to ChildLine are turning at a rapid rate, ChildLine ( 2006 ) â€Å" counselled 37,032 kids about strong-arming between 1st April 2005 to 31st March 2006. A farther 4018 called ChildLine for other grounds but went on to speak about intimidation. Every Month ChildLine counsels more than 3,000 immature people about intimidation, that is a one-fourth ( 23 % ) of all calls to the services. One country of turning concern is homophobic strong-arming † . ( ChildLine 2006 ) . Bullying is non merely a UK job, it happens throughout the universe. Olweus ( 1993:19 ) has been researching the job of strong-arming in Norway since 1973 ; â€Å" he estimated that one in seven students in Norse schools has been involved in bully/victim jobs † ( Olweus 1993 ) . Similar findings in other states indicate that if grownups are willing to listen and look into, kids will state them that strong-arming is one of the major jobs kids face during their school old ages. There are different signifiers of strong-arming behavior that has been identified, such as indirect and direct, as affecting persons or groups, verbal and physical. It is by and large agreed that the most common signifier of intimidation is verbal maltreatment is and name naming, followed by assorted other signifiers of physical intimidation such as ; gender, gender and ethnicity. The chief types of strong-arming within school, particularly within secondary schools, these are physical school intimidation, emotional/verbal school intimidation, electronic intimidation or Cyber – intimidation and sexual/homophobic intimidation. Physical intimidation is when an single bully or a group of toughs physical harm their victim, illustrations of this type of strong-arming are pluging, jostling and slapping, and this can besides be direct intimidation. Emotional/Verbal school intimidation is when a bully or toughs use hapless and violative linguistic communication. Examples of emotional intimidation includes the spreading of bad rumors about their victims, maintaining their victims out of a ‘group ‘ , badgering the victim in agencies ways and cursing them, acquiring other people/bullies to ‘gang up ‘ on the victims, name naming, torment, aggravation, torturing, whispering to another/others in forepart of the victim, walking in groups around school and maintaining secrets off from a so – called friend ( s ) . Electronic intimidation or cyber intimidation is when strong-arming happens online or electronically. It occurs when the bully or toughs bully their victims through the cyberspace, nomadic phones or other electronic agencies and devices. Examples of this type of strong-arming are directing mean spirited text messages, electronic mails and instant messages, posting inappropriate images, messages about their victims in web logs, on web sites or societal networking sites and utilizing person else ‘s user name to distribute rumors or prevarications about their victims. Sexual bullying/homophobic intimidation is any of the above intimidation behavior, which is based on a victim ‘s gender or gender. It is when gender or gender is used as a arm by male childs or misss towards their victims, although it is more normally directed at misss. This type of intimidation can be carried out to the victim ‘s face, behind their dorsum or through the usage of engineering ( cyber intimidation ) . However, it is besides argued that â€Å" sexist intimidation or torment in school is often dismissed as unoffending or legitimised as portion of the normal procedure of gender socialization, and that it is a signifier of maltreatment engaged in by male instructors and male students likewise † ( Stainton Rogers 1991:207 ) . Furthermore, sexual torment, of a physical every bit good as verbal sort, has been described as â€Å" portion of the ‘hidden course of study ‘ of many carbon monoxides – educational schools † ( Drouet 1993 ) . Indeed, Duncan ( 1999:128 ) presents a complex scenario in relation to what he footings ‘gender maltreatment ‘ in schools. â€Å" In deconstructs strong-arming as a manifestation of gender struggle ‘in the chase of a coveted sexual individuality ‘ † . He concludes that â€Å" both misss and male childs can follow a assortment of active and inactive functions in relation to intimidation, but that sexualised nature of much gender maltreatment serves to remind misss that power is gendered. The menace of colza was identified as a possible countenance against misss who do non conform to male outlooks: ‘rape may be ( relatively ) rare but physical and sexual assault are non and the lower scope of conflictual sexualised gender patterns keeps that menace alive on a day-to-day footing ‘ . Some school misss have identified sexual assault and even ravish within their apprehension ( and perchance experience ) of strong-arming † . ( Duncan 1999:12 8 ) . The permeant nature of homophobic maltreatment in schools has been widely commented upon, whether the intended mark is known to be cheery, or non. There is grounds to propose that â€Å" homophobic maltreatment serves to ‘police ‘ gender individualities, and set up norms of sexual behavior and gender individuality † ( Mac An Ghaill, 1989:273 – 286, Douglas et Al, 1997 ) Rivers ( 1996:19 ) argues that a â€Å" important characteristic of homophobic intimidation is the badness of the maltreatment. In a retrospective survey of cheery work forces and tribades ‘ experience of intimidation, one homosexual adult male reported holding been raped by a instructor, others reported holding their apparels set alight, and being burnt with coffin nails while being held down. One tribade reported holding been raped by a male student and another of holding been dragged around the playing field by her hair † ( Rivers 1996:19 ) Other types of intimidation are gender intimidation which could be linked straight to sexual and homophobic intimidation and another type of strong-arming that is increasing is racist strong-arming or racial torment, figure of surveies on the relationship between strong-arming and racism. However at that place appears to be some ambivalency refering the conceptualization of racialist intimidation. Tizard et Al ( 1988:2 ) , for illustration, â€Å" study that name – naming associating to physical visual aspect, personal hygiene and race represented the three most frequent signifiers of ‘teasing ‘ reported among 7 twelvemonth olds † ( Tizard et al 1988:2 ) Loach and Bloor ( 1995:18 – 20 ) and Siann ( 1994:123 – 134 ) argue that â€Å" intimidation can work as a ‘cover ‘ for racism † . A study by the Commission for Racial Equality ( 1988 ) , describes assorted instance surveies of what is defined as ‘racial torment ‘ in schools. Regardless of the nomenclature used, Gillborn ( 1993 ) argues that â€Å" racism in schools reflects a wider and racially structured society, and accordingly, racialist maltreatment carries excess weight † . In footings of prevalence, Kelly and Cohn ‘s ( 1988 ) study of first ( twelvemonth 7 ‘s ) and Fourth Year ( twelvemonth 10 ‘s ) students in school in Manchester found that two – tierces of students said that they had been bullied. Racist name – naming was recorded as the 3rd most common signifier of strong-arming. In recent study of Black and cultural minority student in chiefly white schools, â€Å" 26 % said that they had experienced racially opprobrious name – naming during the old hebdomad, while at school, or while going to and from school † ( Cline et al 2002:1 ) . However, it is common with many studies on intimidation, that it is likely that racist strong-arming or torment is under – reported. There is some argument in the literature refering both the value and cogency of placing typical ‘victim ‘ or ‘bully ‘ features. Stainton Roger ( 1991 ) for illustration, argues that â€Å" any kid can be a bully or a victim, and that neither denotes an single abnormal psychology: ‘bullying is a brooding pattern † . Basically what is being said is that immature people who get bullied are making victims and those victims are making toughs or are going toughs themselves. On the other manus, Sharp et Al ( 2002:139 ) â€Å" claim that some kids are more likely to fall into a bully function or victim function, and that is how kids learn to pull off aggression and averment in interpersonal accomplishments represents a cardinal contributory factor † ( Sharp et al 2002:139 ) Olweus ( 1993:19 ) described toughs as â€Å" physically stronger and victims as holding features that differed from the norm, for illustration in visual aspect sporting or academic ability † . Boulton and Underwood ( 1992: 73 – 87 ) besides found that â€Å" kids who perceived themselves to be different in some manner, felt more vulnerable to strong-arming † ( NSPCC 2003:20 ) . Olweus ( 1984:58 ) found that â€Å" about 20 per cent of toughs were besides victims, and that they represented a peculiarly disturbed group † . Others have claimed that â€Å" some kids fall neither into the victim nor bully category and that they therefore provide a utile ‘normative contrast ‘ with which to analyses strong-arming and victim behavior † ( Schwartz 1993 and Glover et al 1998 ) . The effects that strong-arming has on both the bully and particularly the victim can be life altering, in a negative manner and have severe effects non merely short term, strong-arming can besides hold a long term consequence on the victims. The effects of strong-arming have been said to be really serious, it has been reported that â€Å" about 10 kids in the UK kill themselves each twelvemonth because their lives have been made so suffering by being subjected to strong-arming † ( NSPCC 2009 ) . There are many effects of intimidation, these are include experiencing down and sad most of the clip, holding kiping jobs such as insomnia or holding incubuss, non desiring to travel to school, non eating or over eating, enduring from tummy achings and concerns, experience less confident and besides lose their ego assurance and halt believing in themselves, experience unhappy and suffering which will ensue in basking life less. The longer the victim is subjected to strong-arming will l ikely in bend become a bully themselves, it will take longer for the victim to retrieve from it and may go on to destruct the ego assurance of the victim, taking to possible self-destruction. In 1999 Kidscape conducted the first of all time retrospective study of grownups to detect if intimidation at school affected those who had been bullied in ulterior life. The study showed that being severely bullied as a kid had a dramatic, negative, strike hard – on consequence throughout life. The extended study of over 1000 grownups, showed that â€Å" strong-arming affects non merely your ego – regard as an grownup, but your ability to do friends, win in instruction, and in work and societal relationships. About half ( 46 per cent ) of those who were bullied at secondary school contemplated suicide compared with merely 7 per cent of those who were non bullied. The bulk of the grownups reported feeling angry and acrimonious now about the intimidation they suffered at school as kids. Most standard no aid at the clip to halt the intimidation and stating either made the blustery worse or had no consequence. Of the 1044 grownups who took portion in the study 828 were bu llied at school and 216 were non and of those bullied 70 per cent were adult females and 30 per cent were work forces and of those who were non bullied, 49 per cent were adult females and 51 per cent were work forces † ( Kidscape 1999:1 ) . However, jobs may happen if the school fails to recognize and decide intimidation within school, whereby a kid may go at hazard of truanting and detachment from instruction, which could so take to the hazard of ego harming and possible self-destruction. Should a kid non see an educational experience supportive of constructing resiliency against intimidation, so those exposed to strong-arming can turn to person before it is excessively late. The importance of instruction as a preventive step against intimidation will be discussed along with how instruction is delivered to those kids who are enduring at the custodies of toughs. The Government has made undertaking intimidation in schools a cardinal precedence and the Department for Children, Schools and Families ( DCSF ) has made it clear that no signifier of intimidation should be tolerated. Strong-arming in schools should be taken really earnestly, as it is non a normal portion of turning up and it can and will destroy lives. It is mandatory for schools to hold steps in topographic point to promote good behavior and regard for others on the portion of students, and to forestall all signifiers of intimidation. The DCSF supports schools in planing their anti – intimidation policies and their schemes to undertake intimidation, by supplying comprehensive, practical counsel paperss. Regional advisors with expertness in the field of strong-arming are besides on manus to assist schools implement the counsel and pull on best patterns. Teachers can assist to cut down strong-arming both by the manner they teach and by what they teach. In footings of attacks to learning, although it may look obvious, it may be helpful to see learning attacks along a spectrum with, at one extreme attack which actively promote strong-arming and at the other 1s which specifically seek to forestall intimidation. An illustration of actively advancing intimidation is whenever a instructor intentionally humiliates a student, and so the instructor is rather merely prosecuting in strong-arming. It truly does non count to the student whether the purpose is simply to exercise control or derive personal satisfaction. It would be pleasant to presume that this sort of instructor intimidation was something that merely happened in the yesteryear. Unfortunately most secondary school students, at least, will state you that in their school there are one or two instructors who on a regular basis use bullying, irony, minimizing or harassment towards stud ents, and that most instructors, on occasions, will fall back to this sort of behavior ( Lawson 1994 ) , demoing the students that it is acceptable to bully others. The contrast from ‘actively – promote strong-arming ‘ is strong-arming – preventative instruction. This is an attack to learning which is watchful to and aware of the status which makes some students vulnerable and avoids backing these. This is about handling all students with a degree of regard and avoiding doing gags at the disbursal of the weakest. It is about non lending to a student ‘s exposure, about non puting up victims. It is besides approximately moving as a good function theoretical account, as person who does no misapply the power they have. More proactively strong-arming – preventative instruction is about publically admiting that strong-arming is non acceptable, seting it specifically on the docket within the secondary school and in the schoolroom, and making chances which will assist staff and students to develop schemes to antagonize strong-arming. Overall what is needed is to alter the manner that students behave towards each ot her. To make this the pupils themselves must desire to alter and they need schemes and they must cognize how to alter. The 1996 Education Act placed duty on caput instructors for subject and behavior in schools, and in 1994 the Department for Education encouraged caput instructors, in audiences with their government organic structures, staff and parents, to develop ‘ whole school ‘ behaviour policies and attacks which are clearly understood by students, parents and the school staff. The counsel recommended that schools should besides hold an anti – intimidation policy ; ‘School staff must move and significantly be seen to move steadfastly against strong-arming whenever and wherever it appears. School behaviour policies and the associated regulations of behavior should, hence, make specific mention to strong-arming. Regulating organic structures should on a regular basis reexamine their school ‘s policy in strong-arming. School prospectuses and other paperss issued to parents and students should do it clear that strong-arming will non be tolerated. Prospectuss should bes ides explicate agreements through which students troubled by strong-arming can pull their concerns to the attending of staff in the assurance that these will be carefully investigated and, if substantiated, taken earnestly and acted upon. â€Å" Individual members of staff must be watchful to marks of intimidation and act quickly and steadfastly against it. Failure to describe incident may be interpreted as excusing the behavior † ( Elliott 1997c:118 ) . In more recent times, when a secondary school utilizations SEAL ( Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning ) , if used efficaciously it contributes to the work secondary schools are making to cut down intimidation. â€Å" When a school implements SEAL efficaciously across the whole school it establishes strong foundations to its work to forestall intimidation. At the nucleus of SEAL are the societal and emotional accomplishments, which are all of import because high degrees of these accomplishments create societal clime that does non digest strong-arming behavior † ( DCSF 2007 ) The partnership between ChildLine and Schools is a recent enterprise, called CHIPS which was established by ChildLine taking to work straight in schools, young person nines and other scenes with kids and immature people across the UK. In 2007/2008 CHIPS â€Å" worked with more than 66,000 kids and immature people across more than 700 primary schools and secondary schools and about 100 particular schools and young person groups, to back the position that kids and immature people can assist each other, can play a portion in doing alterations to better their ain lives, and have a right to be listened to and respected. CHIPS provides a scope of services from awareness raising assemblies, workshops covering with strong-arming issues, to puting up peer support strategies, that encourage kids and immature people to back up each other † ( NSPCC 2008 ) , all of those services are done within the schools. There are many deductions when it comes to enterprises and proviso, the first is less attending appears to hold been paid to kids ‘s support needs during periods of passage, for illustration between primary school and secondary school. Children frequently fear strong-arming at points of passage in their lives, or at peculiar turning points, for illustration, during the move from primary to secondary school. Children in their last twelvemonth of primary school may be seen as the ‘leaders ‘ of their school. Primary schools are by and large smaller, both in the cloth of the edifice and in the size of the school population. Secondary schools are, by contrast, often viewed as fearfully big topographic points, where fledglings represent the lowest round of a long ladder. Children who change schools as a consequence of traveling place may besides experience vulnerable to strong-arming. It would therefore seem utile for more research to be conducted on the support demands o f kids as they learn the ropes of their new environment. Another deduction is doing certain that all schools have an anti – intimidation policy within school and that it is used efficaciously and at all staff knows how to utilize it. Some of these surveies were prompted by the concerns raised by parents and students that anti – intimidation policies and schemes were holding a limited consequence ) . This shows that â€Å" following an anti – intimidation policy is non plenty ; policies need to be efficaciously implemented and sustained over the long term † ( Glover et al, 1998 ) . Parents and instructors is another deduction as they are non seen to be working together or non working together every bit much as they should. It is every kid ‘s democratic right to go to school in safely. As instruction is one of the really few compulsory activities that parents and the authorities enforce onto kids, it involves all grownups, in whatever capacity, to guarantee that this is possible. Parent and instructors, being the most closely involved have the most valuable function to play. â€Å" Parents are frequently highly dying to hold a bang-up state of affairs quickly resolved and so will offer the highest degree of committedness. Their degree of hurt can frequently be reduced by ask foring them to go actively involved in any program as feelings of weakness may be increasing their concern † ( Besag 1992:155 ) . It may be easier for the victim to confide in a instructor instead than in their parents who are frequently bewildered by the kid ‘s reluctance to discourse the affair and refusal of their offers of aid. The state of affairs in such instances remains shrouded in enigma, and parents rely to a great extent on instructor to back up the kid and communicate with them suitably. Another deduction is when a parent does non experience that the school of their bullied kid has non dealt with the intimidation in an effectual manner and stopped it, and they withdraw their kid from the school where the kid is acquiring bullied and either traveling them to another school or even educating the kid at place, this may hold a negative consequence on the victim, as if they attended a new school, they would hold to do new friend and at that place in non certainty that they will non acquire bullied at the new school, it will besides hold an consequence on the kid ‘s instruction because they may possible be at different phases in the course of study at the new school compared to the school that they were antecedently at. If the parent ‘s of the bullied kid decide to educate their kid at place, they would hold to screen out stuffs and resources themselves, and this could take clip and money. Parents should be warned that if they decide to educate their kid at pla ce, they have opted out of the province instruction system and should non anticipate any aid in educating their kid from the LEA ( Local Education Authority ) . Under the Education Act 1996, â€Å" parents have a legal responsibility to guarantee that their kid receives an efficient full clip instruction suited to the kid ‘s age, ability and aptitude, whether this be at school or otherwise in some sort of instruction † . ( Elliott 1997d: 124 ) . The barriers to education both before and after the point at which a kid is bullied set out above can be institutionally specific, but it is besides clear that some barriers and some of the jobs of proviso troubles around reintegration are dependent on authorities policies and the wider educational system. For about two decennaries, strong-arming in schools has attracted the involvement and concern of authoritiess and policy shapers. In the late 1980s a public question was launched into boisterous behavior in schools, the consequence of this question was the Elton Report ( 1989 ) . The Report highlighted the issue of intimidation, and â€Å" suggested that a positive school ethos provides the indispensable factor in easing academic success and positive student dealingss. A ‘positive school ethos ‘ has, nevertheless, proven a hard construct to specify or quantify. Alternatively, research has tended to concentrate on the comparative virtues of different attacks or ‘interventions ‘ designed to cut down or forestall intimidation † ( Mackinnon et al 1995:43 ) . In the 1990s an extended research funded by the DfEE, indicated that intimidation was far more prevailing in some schools than others, and that the grounds for this form could non ever be attributed to individual cause ( such as societal want, or geographical location ) . Some schools were besides shown to be more effectual than others at presenting and prolonging anti – intimidation work. Despite these complexnesss, the research provided much needed grounds on â€Å" what had up till now remained a mostly concealed phenomenon, and provided the footing for the authorities ‘s first major effort to supply schools with grounds – based research on effectual anti – intimidation schemes † ( DfE 1994, DfEE 2000 ) . About a decennary subsequently, strong-arming continues to stand for an of import issue for public policy, non least because of the links between strong-arming, academic underachievement and mental wellness jobs Guidance issued to â€Å" teacher and school governors highlights their responsibility to forestall all signifiers of intimidation: ‘the emotional hurt caused by strong-arming in whatever signifier – be it racial, or as a consequence of a kid ‘s visual aspect, behavior or particular educational demands, or related to sexual orientation, can prejudice school accomplishment, lead to lateness or hooky, and in utmost instances, terminal with self-destruction, low study rates should non themselves be taken as cogent evidence that strong-arming is non happening ‘ † ( DFEE, 1999:24- 25 ) . The National Healthy School Standard ( DfEE 1999 ) besides recommended the â€Å" development of anti – strong-arming enterprises as portion of a whole – school attack to raising educational criterions, bettering the wellness of kids and immature people, and cut downing societal exclusion † . The DfES has besides announced that, as portion of the authorities ‘s national behavior and attending scheme, counsel and preparation will be offered to all secondary schools on undertaking strong-arming from September 2003. However, while the ‘whole school attack ‘ might be interpreted as repeating the impression of a ‘school ethos ‘ , in other respects the issue of strong-arming appears to be beset by a figure of tensenesss in policy. Students, who are excluded for 15 yearss or more, now receive full – clip instruction. Nevertheless, schools continue to be engaged in the hard undertaking of striking a balance between protecting the vict ims of intimidation ( through the usage of lasting or impermanent exclusions ) , and go toing to the public assistance of students who bully others. A figure of ratings have been undertaken of the impact of school policies on intimidation, and of the comparative effectivity of different sorts of intercessions. Some of these surveies were prompted by the â€Å" concerns raised by parents and students that anti – intimidation policies and schemes were holding a limited consequence † ( Glover et al 1998:120 ) . The grounds shows that â€Å" following an anti – intimidation policy is non plenty ; policies need to be efficaciously implemented and sustained over the long term † ( Glover et al, 1998:222 ) . In peculiar, available research indicates that: â€Å" school broad policies decline in effectivity over a 2 – 3 twelvemonth period, after which clip intimidation additions † ( Sharp et al 2002:139 ) , â€Å" decreases in strong-arming are easier to accomplish in relation to its milder manifestations, but that more terrible signifiers of strong-arming are harder to act upon and even with an effectual anti intimidation policy in topographic point, about 5 per cent of kids will endure from terrible strong-arming at secondary school. † Including the subject of strong-arming within the school course of study has won widespread support. Assorted facets if the course of study offers range for turn toing intimidation, for illustration, â€Å" as an component of personal societal and wellness instruction, or English, play, history or RE † ( Cowie and Sharp 1994:85 ) There is besides grounds to â€Å" back up the development of anti – male chauvinist and anti – racialist policies alongside anti – intimidation policies, and besides within a whole school model † ( Roland, 1989, Gillborn 1993 ) . It is clear that there are deductions to any enterprises or commissariats that even those created by the authorities. Despite the being of anti – intimidation policies, kids express a go oning reluctance to state grownups, parents or instructors, about their experiences when it comes to strong-arming. Children ‘s reluctances to speak to grownups about strong-arming have been attributed to their deficiency of religion in grownup ‘s ability to halt the intimidation. A survey undertaken by Glover et Al ( 1998:159 ) reported a â€Å" figure of different grownups responses perceived by kids as helpful or non so helpful. Staff who communicated that steadfast action would be taken against strong-arming were valued, peculiarly during the passage from primary to secondary school. other helpful responses were identified as instructors acquiring to cognize who the problem shapers were, maintaining an oculus on victims, supplying information during assemblies and showing the difference between strong-arming and ‘mucking about ‘ during category. Adult responses were described as counter – productive if they were perceived by kids to be unsuitably forceful. Traveling victims to another category was besides described as unhelpful because victims were so obliged to do new friends. ‘Telling ‘ grownups about strong-arming entailed a figure of hazards, including loss of control over how the ailment was later handled † . Another issue about kids ‘s reluctance to ‘tell ‘ may besides be attributed to kids ‘s ain codification of behavior, which they could be looking to be ‘telling narratives ‘ to instructors or other grownups in places of authorization. â€Å" Children besides express reluctance to confide in their parents, because they feel ashamed, rejected, obliged to demo self – trust, and do non desire to worry their parents † ( Besag 1989:155 ) . They may besides fear that their parents will over respond to strong-arming. It is apparent from the research that there are still many factors that assist in the increasing figure of kids and immature people being bullied within secondary school, and they are non having the support and counsel that they should be having from their schools and the support that they do have is limited. The literature reveals that the demands if these immature people are really complex: therefore they could non be addressed by one individual enterprise or Government policy. Olweus ( 1993:19 ) advises that â€Å" more research is needed to happen out why kids engage in anti – societal behavior and intimidation and the effects of those who are bullied and recommends that more longitudinal research should be carried out † . This thought would assist to develop effectual enterprises that can both cut down intimidation and raise engagement in instruction for all from the oncoming. Longitudinal research besides proves advantageous in measuring how good current Governmen t enterprises are working to cut down offense. The current enterprises aimed to undertaking intimidation and educational detachment of both the bully and the victim set out by the Labour Government look to be working, but they are limited to certain social/ethnic groups and schools, granted these societal groups are the 1s most in demand, but it is possible that kids of other social/ethnic groups and schools are being missed. It is pointed out by the TES ( 2005 ) that national jobs need to be tackled nationally, whereby these inducements need implementing in more countries in order to be wholly successful. With respects to kids who are being bullied, it is evident that schools have improved on seeking to forestall intimidation over the twelvemonth and so has the possible to supply support and counsel every bit good as high quality instruction to those affected by any type of intimidation ; nevertheless the figure of negative promotion of schools non making plenty to forestall strong-arming within school and immature people perpetrating self-destruction because of intimidation and harder penalties to those who do bully, has a important impact of those kids who are victims to strong-arming. Some of the jobs may be caused by the kid and some caused by the school and authorities policies, extra research needs to be carried out to do the differentiation between policy failure and the single failure. It appears that hapless communicating and uncertainness about duties from the footing of many jobs throughout schools and the bar of intimidation and bound any possible advancement. It is hence apprehensible why certain bureaus have called for one individual authorization to be responsible for the victims of intimidation and besides those who cause the intimidation, the bully/bullies. However in order to turn to the complex and multiple demands of both the toughs and the victims it could be said that legion bureaus need to be involved, given that each one has expertise in certain countries, it is hence suggested that the Government implement a new system to work out the communicating job. This would profit a important sum of people, in peculiar those who are victims of intimidation, who suffers in legion ways because information sing their background and besides what has been go oning to them and what bar steps are non passed on to relevant bureaus. Overall the essay has highlighted the factors that put immature people at hazard of both educational detachment and intimidation ; and demonstrated how easy each of these factors overlaps. The importance of instruction as a protective and preventive step against intimidation has been highlighted. However, it has besides been pointed out that certain kids do non profit from the positive facets of instruction and go on to bully others. In order to better educational battle and cut down strong-arming within school, particularly secondary schools, extra research needs to be carried out in order to turn to how educational enterprises and policies impact on alienation. On a more local degree the importance of effectual communicating and support in each single school demands to be addressed, its betterment would be of great benefit to all those involved, chiefly the victims and their households.ReferencingBalding, J. ( 1996 ) Bully Off: Young Peoples Who Fear Traveling to School, School Hea lth Education Unit. Exeter University. Besag, V E ( 1989 ) Bullies and Victims in Schools: A usher to Understanding and Management. Milton Keynes: Open University Press pp155 Boulton, M and Underwood, K. ( 1992 ) Bully/Victim Problems Among Middle School Children. British Journal of Educational Psychology 62: 73 – 87 ChildLine ( 2006 ) Strong-arming Calls to ChildLine Grow 12 Per Cent ( Online ) Available at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nspcc.org.uk/whatwedo/mediacentre/pressreleases/29_august_2006_bullying_calls_to_childline_grow_12_per_cent_wdn38326.html ( Accessed on 19 March 2010 ) Cline, T. De Abreu, G. Fihosy, C. Gray, H. Lambert, H and Neale, J. ( 2002 ) Minority Ethnic Pupils in chiefly White Schools. Research Report No. 365. Norwich: HMSO pp1 Commission for Racial Equality ( 1988 ) Learning in Terror! A Survey of Racial Harassment in Schools and Colleges. London: CRE Cowie, H and Sharp S ( 1994 ) Undertaking Bullying through the Curriculum. In Smith, PK and Sharp, S ( explosive detection systems. ) School Bullying: penetrations and Positions. London: Routledge pp85 DfE ( 1994 ) Bullying: Do n't Suffer in Silence. London: HMSO DfEE ( 1999 ) National Healthy School Standard. Guidance. London: DfEE pp24 -25 DfEE ( 2000 ) Bullying: Do n't Suffer in Silence. ( Online ) Available at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.dfes.gov.uk/bullying/ ( accessed on 1 April 2010 ) DfES ( 2003 ) Undertaking Bullying: Listening to the Views of Children and Young Peoples Available at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.dcsf.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/RR400.pdf ( accessed on 25.01.10 ) DCSF ( 2009 ) How can Seal lend to the Work Schools are Making to Reduce Bullying? ( Online ) Available at hypertext transfer protocol: //nationalstrategies.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/banda/secondary/pages/background_213.html ( Accessed 1 April 2010 ) Douglas, N. Warwick, I. Kamp, S and Whitty, G. ( 1997 ) Playing it Safe: Responses of Secondary School Teachers to Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Pupils, Bullying, HIV, AIDS and Section 28. London: Health and Education Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London. Drouet, D ( 1993 ) Adolescent Female Bullying and Sexual Harassment. In Tattum, D ( ed. ) Understanding and Managing Bullying, Oxford: Heinemann Duncan, N ( 1999 ) Sexual Bullying: Gender Conflict and Pupil Culture in Secondary Schools. London: Routledge pp128 Elliott, M ( 1997a ) Bullying: A Practical Guide to Coping for Schools. London: Financial Times Pitman Publishing pp 2 Elliott, M ( 1997b ) Bullying: A Practical Guide to Coping for Schools. London: Financial Times Pitman Publishing pp 1 Elliott, M ( 1997c ) Bullying: A Practical Guide to Coping for Schools. London: Financial Times Pitman Publishing pp 118 Elliott, M ( 1997d ) Bullying: A Practical Guide to Coping for Schools. London: Financial Times Pitman Publishing pp 124 Elliott, M & A ; Kilpatrick, J. ( 1994 ) How to Stop Bullying: A Kidscape Training Guide, Kidscape ( Online ) Available at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.kidscape.org.uk/download/index.asp # Training hypertext transfer protocol: //www.kidscape.org.uk/download/index.asp # Training ( accessed on 19 March 2010 ) Frederickson, N. Miller and A. Cline, T. ( 2008 ) Educational Psychology. London: Hodder Education. Pp176 – 177 Gillborn, D ( 1993 ) Racial Violence and Bullying. In Tattum, D ( ed. ) Understanding and Pull offing Bullying. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Glover, D C. Cartwright, N and Gleeson, D ( 1998 ) Towards Bully Free Schools: Interventions in Action. Milton Keynes: OUP pp 120, 222, 159 Home of Commons, Education and Skills Committee ( 2007 ) Education and Skills – Third Special Report ( Online ) Available at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmselect/cmeduski/600/60002.htm ( accessed on 1 April 2010 ) pp7 – 8 Kelly, E and Cohn, T. ( 1988 ) Racism in Schools: New Research Evidence. Stoke – on – Trent: Trentham Books Kidscape ( 1999 ) Kidscape Survey: Long Term Effects of Bullying. ( Online ) Available from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.kidscape.org.uk/download/index.asp ( Accessed on 1 April 2010 ) pp1 Lawson, S ( 1994 ) Helping Children Cope with Bullying. London: Sheldon Press Loach, B and Bloor, C. ( 1995 ) Droping the Bully to Find the Racist. Multicultural Teaching 13 ( 2 ) : 18 – 20 Mac An Ghaill, M. ( 1989 ) Coming of age in 1980s England: Reconceptualising Black Students ‘ Schooling Experiences. British Journal of Sociology of Education. 10 ( 3 ) : 273 – 286 Mackinnon, D. Statham, J and Hales, M. ( 1995 ) Education in the United kingdom: Facts and Figures. London: Open University pp 43 NSPCC ( 2003 ) Undertaking Bullying: Listening to the Views of Children and Young People ( Online ) Available at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.helpwomenandchildren.org/ # /help-for-children/4536351558 ( Accessed on 1 April 2010 ) pp 10, 14, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24 NSPCC ( 2008 ) CHIPS – ChildLine in Partnership ( Online ) Available at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nspcc.org.uk/Inform/resourcesforteachers/CHIPS/chips_wda55379.html ( Accessed on 1 April 2010 ) NSPCC ( 2009 ) Go Green Assembly Plan ( online ) Available at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nspcc.org.uk/documents/assembly_pdf_wdf36162.pdf ( Accessed on 1 April 2010 ) Olweus, D ( 1984 ) Aggressors and their Victims: Bullying at School. In Frude, N and Gault, H ( ed. ) Disruptive Behaviour in Schools. New York: Wiley pp58 Olweus, D. ( 1993 ) Strong-arming at School: What We Know and What We Can Make, Oxford, Blackwell. Pp19 Rivers, I ( 1996 ) Young Gay and Bullied Young People Now, January, 18:19 Schwartz, D. ( 1993 ) Ancestors of Aggression and Peer Victimisation. Conference for Research in Child Development, New Orleans, March 25 -28, Organised by the Society of Research in Child Development Sharp, S. Thompson, D A and Arora, C M J ( 2002 ) Bullying: Effective Schemes for Long – Term Change London: RoutledgeFalmer pp139 Siann, g. ( 1994 ) Who gets Bullied? The consequence of School, Gender and Ethnic Group. Educational Research, 36 ( 2 ) : 123 – 134 Stainton Rogers, W. ( 1991 ) Promoting, Permiting and Preventing Bullying. In Elliott, M ( ed. ) Bullying: A Practical Guide to Coping for Schools Harlow: Longman pp207 Telluriums ( 2005 ) ‘Excellence in Cities is Mediocre ‘ ( online ) Available from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.literacytrust.org.uk/Database/secondary/excellence.html ( Accessed 18 March 2010 ) The Independent ( 2000 ) Schoolgirl Killed herself after ‘Phone Bullying ‘ ( online ) Available at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/schoolgirl-killed-herself-after-phone-bullying-634442.html? cmp=ilc-n ( Accessed 1 April 2010 ) Tizard, B. Blatchford, P. Burke, J. Farquhar, C and Plewis, I. ( 1988 ) Young Children at School in the Inner City. London: Lawrence Erlbaum pp2

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Social Psychology - Essay Example As an amalgamation of what has historically been two disparate and distinct fields of inquiry, social psychology blends the two scholarly realms and provides a new perspective on such issues as social cognition, the individual within society as well as the role that individuals plays in shaping their wider environment. The perception of individuals is very important from a social psychological standpoint and this field allows scholars and researchers to undertake their inquiry from an interdisciplinary approach. Thus, from a social psychological perspective, the perception of individuals can be shaped by both internal psychological factors as well as the social environment. Sociology is a field which has traditionally focused group dynamics and behaviors. Psychology, on the other hand, is a field which is primarily concerned with the individual and the mental motivating factors in explaining thoughts and behaviors. From the perspective of social psychology then, the formation of soci al identity is the result of both social and psychological factors. Individual cognitive behavior influences social identity as does the environment one is raised in, the people he/she grows up with and social identity can be seen as a mixture of these forces (Baron 3-44). Social psychology, as a field of inquiry, has much to say about perceiving groups, norms and behaviors. Accordingly, social psychology looks at these concepts and sheds light onto both the social and psychological features of these issues. Accordingly, Discrimination is described as the prejudicial treatment of others based upon certain real or perceived characteristics. It is generally done on the basis of race, colour, sex, age, language, sexual orientation, religion and/or disability. Discrimination is often based upon pre-held beliefs, judgments and stereotypes about people and

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Economics - Essay Example in terms of taking care of customers in order to retain their loyalty and administrating other business matters. If county size is small then there are less residents in the county, and county administration can easily take care of the needs of county residents, as a result residents remain loyal and do not think about migrating from there. As the residents in a small county are few in numbers, the county administration can have close contact with them. It can listen to there problems carefully and can redress them if it thinks them justified. Due to better understanding between a resident and administration the chance of resident’s disloyalty and disappointment are reduced. Other advantage claimed by Small County is that it can more easily deal with a problem than a large county. For example if a problem of water occurs in county, a small sized county can better deal with this problem due to its small size than a large county. Secondly, as the size of county increases another issue about providing facilities like water, security, gas etc. is also raised that is, will the county administration be able to fulfill all the needs of the residents in return of taxes e.g. property tax, paid by the residents. If the size of county increases it will be very difficult for county’s administration to fairly administrate the system of taxation. 2. If the investors are permitted then how county board will provide necessary facilities e.g. water etc., in return of taxes and funds paid by residents. As county already lacks sufficient water to support such a population increase, as a result residents can be disloyal. In this situation, how it would be possible for county board to raise sufficient funds for wanted

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Addiction is a brain disease - Research Paper Example Addiction has been considered a major society’s problem and it is because of this that some experts believe it as a brain disease at some point. This paper tries to explain that addiction is indeed a disease of the brain. Addiction defined Addiction is a specific behavioral problem that is usually manifested with lack of control of using and seeking something just like drugs, sex and gambling (Gamonet & Piazza, 2010; Goodman, 2008). It is also known as a syndrome in which there is a considerable focus on the impaired control over a behavior (West & Hardy, 2006). Addiction therefore is something that takes control over someone’s life. Someone who is addicted to something else is after of uncontrolled longing for self gratification. Although addiction may differ from what a habit is, the entire point is that its manifestation can always be observed from a behavioral point of view. However, addiction can also be explained from the biological context and this primarily invo lves the study of the brain and its other related fields. Brain disease defined From a biomedical model, disease is defined based on the context of four assumptions in which one of them states that it is a deviation from normal biological functioning (Mishler, 1981). From this assumption, a brain disease therefore is implied as the brain’s inability to function well based on what a normal one can potentially do. This is a generic point of view, but the entire argument in the above assumption is that a deviation from the norm especially when there is involved biological functioning is ground to be considered as a disease. Evidences about addiction is brain disease In order to consider addiction as a brain disease, it is important to trace the very nature of a normal brain and its potential functions in the human body. The normal human brain is said to have the capacity to take control over the entire body. However, aside from the biological stand point, the brain does not only control the whole activities of the body, but primarily thoughts and behavior (Feldman, 2003). This implies that a normal brain has the capacity to create normal thoughts and behavior. Since addiction is a behavioral problem, the brain therefore has specific problem by itself considering that it should have the capacity to create normal thoughts and behaviors in the first place. Furthermore, based on the assumption about normal biological functioning of the body, a normal brain therefore has to function well as expected resulting to create normal thoughts or behaviors. Doctor Alan Lesbner, director of the National Institute of Drug Abuse personally believes that addiction is a brain disease (Walsh, 1997). This is based on the idea that drug addiction is just a result of one’s brain inability to take control of a certain behavior. Doctor Lesbner argued that not all of those who abused drugs resulted to addiction because the brain has a certain capacity to control human behavi or. In fact, not all of those who tried prohibited drugs are addicted. Furthermore, not all of those who start gambling and having sex are addicted to such of these activities. However, the abuse of drugs for instance leads to some changes in the brain and to some extent they are harmful for its normal functioning (Heyman, 2009). Some recent findings showing addiction is a brain disease supported the idea of Doctor Lesbner. Recent findings suggest that addiction is associated with dysfunction of brain tissues resulting to the disruption of regions in the brain which are capable of controlling the normal process of motivation, reward and inhibitory control (Ries et al., 2009; Heyman & Brownsberger, 2001; Flores, 1997). The advent of technological breakthroughs makes this

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Homeland Security for the Port of Baltimore - Essay Example With so much at stake, it is no doubt crucial to consider all possible threats a place like Port Baltimore may be vulnerable to and be prepared with measures to ensure the safety of the city, the people involved, the property and the security of the whole country. Ports are crucial for both, the security of a country and its trade and economy, as they serve as terminals with access across its boundaries. This opens possibilities for infiltration of illegal activities and products along with the usual trade. Thus ports pose a great threat of certain hazards or sources of possible disaster to the city and the country if left improvised. Of the many threats that enable U.S agencies to take effective measures for the protection of the country’s resources and vulnerable assets, the threat of terrorism has the greatest power, especially in the post 9/11 era. The possibilities of terrorist attacks via shipping ports are innumerable. With only six percent of the nine million container s entering the U.S, (Medalia 2) and fourteen percent of the 140,000 containers at Baltimore being examined for explosives, (Davis and GormanSun), it is evident that these portals to the United States are pretty much available to terrorists wanting to strike. It would be fairly easy to hide explosives in the eight to nine feet high and twenty to forty feet long containers that are used to carry the cargo transported between ports. (Medalia 2) Apart from being easy and susceptible targets, they are also fairly attractive in terms of results for such terrorist groups as well. With inflammable material that can cause a minor explosion to spread over miles, even a ten to twenty kiloton bomb could cause a loss of more than $1.2 trillion from direct and indirect costs resulting from the damage of property and disruption of trade activity. (Medalia 2). The destruction could extend to a radius of one or two miles, thus affecting the city the port is in, resulting in a comprehensive disaster. (Medalia 3). Another equally hazardous threat to the U.S port is Drug smuggling, which was the number one priority before September 11, 2001. The failure in the prohibition of drugs infiltrating the country may result in indirect facilitation of terrorist activities and a larger impact on the society by fuelling crime and disease. (Loy 156). According to statistics provided by Interagency Assessment of Cocaine Movement, most of the transportation of illegal drugs is carried out through the sea. (Loy 157) The third effective threat to U.S coasts and ports is the possibility of damage and injury caused by the mishandling of hazardous materials that have the ability to contaminate and destroy not only cargo and property, but marine life and the environment. All this can inadvertently affect the economy by interference in trade and recreation activities around the water front as well as health of the citizens of the port city. Provided that the forces threatening the security of port t oday are much better equipped than they were a decade ago, it is necessary to maintain the efficiency of security systems in the context of developing technology and update methodologies to keep up with the unpredictable and surreptitious approach of the possible enemies of the state. (Pike) Coast guard and customs and Border protection are federal agencies with the strongest presence in seaports. After 9/11 coast guard has created the largest port

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Discussion questions and participation questions continued - Essay Example Two different people deal with the late trucks, break downs and such once the trucks have left the plant and reschedule appointments for these trucks. This current process means that carriers are unsure of who to contact in the event of a problems and receivers are unsure who is their contact person in the event of a problem. An improvement would be to divide up the plants, assigning one person to handle all issues for that plant. That would make one contact person for both the receiver and the carrier from the time the order is first placed until it is received by the receiver. The benefits of this arrangement would be that there would be a cleaner flow of information and assistance between the customer, the carrier and the customer service representative at Cargill. The risks might be that the workers would get so bogged down making appts and routing the trucks that there would be inadequate time to help with problem loads and problems would fall between the cracks. Other risks include risks common to all projects: competency of the workers, costs involved in the change over and the risk that this will fail and customers will lose faith in the company. The risks might me mitigated by beginning this change on a small scale with one plant only. This will leave backup for those participating in the experiment. process improvement enhance the overall working and performance of the business. Here we have open management and handling of all activities and operations in the organization. Here we have following benefits: Operations management is the managing of these productive resources. It entails the design and control of systems responsible for the productive use of raw materials, human resources, equipment, and facilities in the development of a product or service. Operations management is important to the every day lift of any organization especially if it can be performed with little or no errors and be kept at a low cost while continuing to provide

Finance and Accounting Math Problem on Cooperate Finance

Finance and Accounting on Cooperate Finance - Math Problem Example Contribution from the parents would be invested at 6% annually for a period of 3 years. However the remaining amount will be raised from Aunt Hilda’s gift. So, at the moment, the future value of the contribution from the parents would be calculated and then this future value from the parents would be deducted from $10,000 to find the future value of the amount that would be raised from the Aunt Hilda. Once this amount is identified, the present value of Aunt Hilda gift will be calculated to identify the amount required from her. Parents would contribute $5,000 and that will be invested for 3 years at 6%. Therefore the future value of $5000 after 3 years would be FV = $5000 (1+ 6%) ^ 3 FV = 5,955 As the total value after 3 years required would be $10,000. So, after three years amount required for the trip except from the contribution of the parents would be $10,000 - $5,955 = $4045 $4,045 would be the amount that would be needed after 3 years. So, this is the future value of th e gift of Aunt Hilda. As this amount would be invested for three years at 10% therefore the present value of this amount would be: PV = 4,045 / (1 + 10%) ^ 3 PV = $3,039 Therefore, $3,039 would be taken from Aunt Hilda as gift. Question #2 Quark industries has four potential projects and the summary and expected cash flows of these projects have been shown below: Project M Project N Project O Project P Year 0 -2,000,000 -2,000,000 -2,000,000 -2,000,000 Year 1 500,000 600,000 1,000,000 300,000 Year 2 500,000 600,000 800,000 300,000 Year 3 500,000 600,000 800,000 300,000 Year 4 500,000 600,000 400,000 300,000 Year 5 500,000 600,000 200,000 300,000 Rate 6% 9% 15% 22% The above table shows the cash flows of each of these projects. In order to determine which project should be accepted, Net Present Value will be used. Net Present value discounts the future cash flows of the project and identifies its work in present (McLaney, 2009). After using the NPV following values have been identifi ed of each of the project: Project M Project N Project O Project P Rate 6% 9% 15% 22% NPV $100,171.60 $306,230.05 $285,765.03 ($935,170.55) Ranking 3 1 2 The above table shows that the project N would be the most feasible one for Quark industries. Ranking has been made that is showing that the Quark industries should invest first in Project N and then in Project O and then in Project M. The company should not invest in Project P as it has a negative NPV. References McLaney, E. (2009). Business Finance: Theory and Practice, New Jersey, Pearson Education Ross, S., Westerfield, R. and Jordan, B. (2009). Fundamentals Of Corporate Finance Standard Edition, New York,

Corporate social responsibility as tool for risk management Dissertation

Corporate social responsibility as tool for risk management - Dissertation Example 3. How does the level of corporate social responsibility practices taken in the company happen to impact the profitability position of the company? 4. What are the best possible practices in terms of corporate social responsibility dimension which are practiced in J Sainsbury Plc? Findings and Analysis The findings and analysis portion would first endeavor to identify potential relationships between the parameters of corporate social responsibility and the activities to mitigate the level of business risks. Through the findings the potential of corporate social responsibility parameter would be analyzed in regards to the appropriation of business profits to help create and sustain effective relationship with the external and internal stakeholders of the company. The use of corporate social responsibility models can be used by the company in countering the level of social risks involved through the gaining of valuable information from the stakeholder’s end (Kytle & Ruggie, 2005 ,p.5-8). Further findings show that though the act of rendering social responsibility tends to reflect that profits of the company are generally used for rendering social activities. However it is observed that in the long run such social responsibility activities of the company happens to enhance the goodwill of the concern and hence also augments its social value (Parkinson, 1995, p.261). In this respect the case of J Sainsbury Plc also shows that increased commitment rendered in sustaining both the natural environment and in establishing enhanced relationships with the community at large has helped the company to gain wider market coverage. Again the level of social responsibility practices also helps the company in enhancing the recruitment possibilities in the company through the opening up of more number of retail outlets in the region (J Sainsbury Plc, 2011, p.64-65). The senior management has realized the importance of CSR guidelines as a tool for the company to position its elf in the competitive climate. Proper CSR guidelines not only reflect the expectations of the stakeholders from the company but also monitor the behavior of the company in whichever place it operates. Although these guidelines are not legally binding, yet they reflect the government’s expectations of the company on corporate social responsibility (UNICE, 2001, p.3). The most challenging part of the corporate social responsibility is that they act as benchmark against which they are evaluated by governments and stakeholders. They do not replace the sectoral code of conduct or the individual companies (Mullerat, 2010, p.39). A response of the senior management also throws light on the fact that CSR is viewed as an important management tool in the organization. Corporate social responsibility has both an internal and an external dimension. Human resource management, health and safety factors associated with the occupation, business restructuring, management of natural resources and the environmental impacts are some of the internal dimensions of CSR.

Arabic language in Qatar university Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Arabic language in Qatar university - Article Example abic in Qatar University will help in ensuring that students of business and other professionals will learn Arabic language and in turn it will motivate organizations to once again adopt Arabic as their official language. Another benefit of adoption of Arabic language in Qatar University is that the foreign students who study in Qatar University will even learn how to communicate in Arabic language and this will help them in pursuing a career in Qatar and other Arab based organizations in which Arabic is the official language. For example, Qatar is supposed to be the host of the World Cup during the year of 2022 and this is attracting various foreigners to apply and obtain for employment in Qatar (Bryant 1). In order to gain employment in Qatar and work as a team with the natives of Qatar, these individuals will be requiring learning Arabic. In order to learn Arabic they can gain admission in Qatar University which has adopted Arabic as the language for instructions. A third reason d ue to which it is beneficial to adopt Arabic as language for instructions in Qatar University is that this will encourage more Qatar based students to obtain admission in Qatar University. Due to this, they will find it easier to gain admission by passing tests that are in Arabic language. Many students in Qatar fail to obtain admission in Qatar University because the admission tests used to be administered in English Language. This is one of the reasons why there is only 1 native Qatar student in Qatar University for every 8 foreign students (Quartz 1). According to a study conducted by Ellili-Cherif et al. Qatari students fail to gain admission in Qatar University because the fail to exhibit the English proficiency required gaining admission in Qatar University (Ellili-Cherif 207). On one end there are several advantages of adopting Arabic language as the language for instructions in Qatar University, but at the same times several disadvantage of this measure even exist. One of the

Misconception of African Americans Essay Example for Free

Misconception of African Americans Essay Since the beginning of time African Americans have been viewed negatively. We have always been viewed as a threat to society and frowned upon by many races. There are many cliches displayed in the media of what African Americans are supposed to act like. These conclusions cause almost immediate negative feelings from other races and sometimes by our own race. African American females in television shows and movies are often shown as the loud â€Å"ghetto† acting, angry black girl who is always â€Å"telling someone off†. Actor Tyler Perry has been criticized for illustrating African American females as â€Å"big momma†, another negative portrayal of black women. Other times shapely video vixens cause other black females to be portrayed as â€Å"jump-offs† or gold diggers. African American males have even greater judgments to overcome. They are viewed as a menace to society. They are illustrated as wild, angry, dangerous â€Å"gang bangers†. Black men are viewed as absentee fathers or abusive husbands. Although, in some cases, African American males do possess some of these characteristics, there are just as many black men that are positive role models. These ignorant judgments are called stereotypes. A stereotype is defined as â€Å"a widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing†. Stereotypes, in my own words, are judgments blindly made by people who use ignorance as an excuse to be biased against those who are different from them. There are many different types of stereotyping. Racial stereotyping, sexist stereotyping, stereotypes about cultures, and sexual orientation stereotypes are all judgments that can affect one’s life in many ways. Stereotypes are, sadly, made by everyone. Racial stereotyping, however, is the most common type of stereotyping, and can sometimes be dangerous. The Trayvon Martin story, for example, is a situation where stereotyping turned tragic. Trayvon Martin was a young African American boy who was walking from the store with nothing but Skittles and a drink in his pockets. Because of his race, and the stereotype of what black Males are capable of, he was targeted, and tragically killed. There have been many similar cases of dangerous stereotyping. People’s fear of what the media shows we are suited to do, has gotten out of control. Too many of us are dying because of this fear. While many stereotypes do seem to be believable, people like Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, my grandparents, and my mom allow me to realize that not all stereotypes are true.

Concepts of Brand Identity and Positioning

Concepts of Brand Identity and Positioning A brand is not the name of a product. It is the vision that drives the creation of products and services under that name. That vision, the key belief of the brands and its core values is called identity. It drives vibrant brands able to create advocates, a real cult and loyalty. Modern competition calls for two essential tools of brand management: ‘brand identity, specifying the facets of brands uniqueness and value, and ‘brand positioning, the main difference creating preference in a specific market at a specific time for its products. For existing brands, identity is the source of brand positioning. Brand positioning specifies the angle used by the products of that brand to attack a market in order to grow their market share at the expense of competition. Defining what a brand is made of helps answer many questions that are asked every day, such as: Can the brand sponsor such and such event or sport? Does the advertising campaign suit the brand? Is the opportunity for launching a new product inside the brands boundaries or outside? How can the brand change its communication style, yet remain true to itself? How can decision making in communications be decentralised regionally or internationally, without jeopardising brand congruence? All such decisions pose the problem of brand identity and definition which are essential prerequisites for efficient brand management. Brand identity: a necessary concept Like the ideas of brand vision and purpose, the concept of brand identity is recent. It started in Europe (Kapferer, 1986).The perception of its paramount importance has slowly gained worldwide recognition; in the most widely read American book on brand equity (Aaker, 1991), the word ‘identity is in fact totally absent, as is the concept. Today, most advanced marketing companies have specified the identity of their brand through proprietary models such as ‘brand key (Unilever), ‘footprint (Johnson Johnson), ‘bulls eyes and ‘brand stewardship, which organise in a specific form a list of concepts related to brand identity. However, they are rather checklists. Is identity a sheer linguistic novelty, or is it essential to understanding what brands are? What is identity? To appreciate the meaning of this significant concept in brand management, we shall begin by considering the many ways in which the word is used today. For example, we speak of ‘identity cards a personal, non-transferable document that tells in a few words who we are, what our name is and what distinguishable features we have that can be instantly recognised. We also hear of ‘identity of opinion between several people, meaning that they have an identical point of view. In terms of communication, this second interpretation of the word suggests brand identity is the common element sending a single message amid the wide variety of its products, actions and communications. This is important since the more the brand expands and diversifies, the more customers are inclined to feel that they are, in fact, dealing with several different brands rather than a single one. If products and communication go their separate ways, how can customers possibly perceive these different routes as converging towards a common vision and brand? Speaking of identical points of view also raises the question of permanence and continuity. As civil status and physical appearance change, identity cards get updated, yet the fingerprint of their holders always remains the same. The identity concept questions how time will affect the unique and permanent quality of the sender, the brand or the retailer. In this respect, psychologists speak of the ‘identity crisis which adolescents often go through. When their identity structure is still weak, teenagers tend to move from one role model to another. These constant shifts create a gap and force the basic question: ‘What is the real me? Finally, in studies on social groups or minorities, we often speak of ‘cultural identity. In seeking an identity, they are in fact seeking a pivotal basis on which to hinge not only their inherent difference but also their membership of a specific cultural entity. Brand identity may be a recent notion, but many researchers have already delved into the organisational identity of companies (Schwebig, 1988; Moingeon and Soenen, 2003). There, the simplest verbal expression of identity often consists in saying: ‘Oh, yes, I see, but its not the same in our company! In other words, corporate identity is what helps an organisation, or a part of it, feel that it truly exists and that it is a coherent and unique being, with a history and a place of its own, different from others. From these various meanings, we can infer that having an identity means being your true self, driven by a personal goal that is both different from others and resistant to change. Thus, brand identity will be clearly defined once the following questions are answered: What is the brands particular vision and aim? What makes it different? What need is the brand fulfilling? What is its permanent nature? What are its value or values? What is its field of competence? Of legitimacy? What are the signs which make the brand recognisable? These questions could indeed constitute the brands charter. This type of official document would help better brand management in the medium term, both in terms of form and content, and so better address future communication and extension issues. Communication tools such as the copy strategy are essentially linked to advertising campaigns, and so are only committed to the short term. There must be specific guidelines to ensure that there is indeed only one brand forming a solid and coherent entity. Brand identity and graphic identity charters Many readers will make the point that their firms already make use of graphic identity ‘bibles, either for corporate or specific brand purposes. We do indeed find many graphic identity charters, books of standards and visual identity guides. Urged on by graphic identity agencies, companies have rightly sought to harmonise the messages conveyed by their brands. Such charters therefore define the norms for visual recognition of the brand, ie the brands colours, graphic design and type of print. Although this may be a necessary first step, it isnt the be all and end all. Moreover, it puts the cart before the horse. What really matters is the key message that we want to communicate. Formal aspects, outward appearance and overall looks result from the brands core substance and intrinsic identity. Choosing symbols requires a clear definition of what the brand means. However, while graphic manuals are quite easy to find nowadays, explicit definitions of brand identity per se are still very rare. Yet, the essential questions above (ie the nature of the identity to be conveyed) must be properly answered before we begin discussing and defining what the communication means and what the codes of outward recognition should be. The brands deepest values must be reflected in the external signs of recognition, and these must be apparent at first glance. The family resemblance between the various models of BMW conveys a strong identity, yet it is not the identity. This brands identity and essence can actually be defined by addressing the issue of its difference, its permanence, its value and its personal view on automobiles. Many firms have unnecessarily constrained their brand because they formulated a graphic charter before defining their identity. Not knowing who they really are, they merely perpetuate purely formal codes by, for example, using a certain photographic style that may not be the most suitable. Thus Nina Riccis identity did not necessarily relate to the companys systematic adherence to English photographer David Hamiltons style. Knowing brand identity paradoxically gives extra freedom of expression, since it emphasises the pre-eminence of substance over strictly formal features. Brand identity defines what must stay and what is free to change. Brands are living systems. They must have degrees of freedom to match modern market diversity. Identity: a contemporary concept That a new concept identity has emerged in the field of management, already well versed in brand image and positioning, is really no great surprise. Todays problems are more complex than those of 10 or 20 years ago and so there is now a need for more refined concepts that allow a closer connection with reality. First of all, we cannot overemphasise the fact that we are currently living in a society saturated in communications. Everybody wants to communicate these days. If needed, proof is available: there have been huge increases in advertising budgets, not only in the major media but also in the growing number of professional magazines. It has become very difficult to survive in the hurly-burly thus created, let alone to thrive and successfully convey ones identity. For communication means two things: sending out messages and making sure that they are received. Communicating nowadays is no longer just a technique, it is a feat in itself. The second factor explaining the urgent need to understand brand identity is the pressure constantly put on brands. We have now entered an age of marketing similarities. When a brand innovates, it creates a new standard. The other brands must then catch up if they want to stay in the race, hence the increasing number of ‘me-too products with similar attributes, not to mention the copies produced by distributors. Regulations also cause similarities to spread. Bank operations, for example, have become so much alike that banks are now unable to fully express their individuality and identity. Market research also generates herdism within a given sector. As all companies base themselves on the same life-style studies, the conclusions they reach are bound to be similar as are the products and advertising campaigns they launch, in which sometimes even the same words are used. Finally, technology is responsible for growing similarity. Why do cars increasingly look alike, in spite of their different makes? Because car makers are all equally concerned about fluidity, inner car space constraints, motorisation and economy, and these problems cannot be solved in all that many different ways. Moreover, when the models of four car brands (Audi, Volkswagen, Seat and Skoda) share many identical parts (eg chassis, engine, gearbox), for either productivity or competitiveness purposes, it is mainly brand identity, along with, to a lesser extent, whats left of each car, which will distinguish the makes from one another. Diversification calls for knowing the brands identity. Brands launch new products, penetrate new markets and reach new targets. This may cause both fragmented communications and patchwork images. Though we are still able to discern bits and pieces of the brand here and there, we are certainly unable to perceive its global and coherent identity. Why speak of identity rather than image? What does the notion of identity have to offer that the image of a brand or a company or a retailer doesnt have? After all, firms spend large amounts of money measuring image. Brand image is on the receivers side. Image research focuses on the way in which certain groups perceive a product, a brand, a politician, a company or a country. The image refers to the way in which these groups decode all of the signals emanating from the products, services and communication covered by the brand. Identity is on the senders side. The purpose, in this case, is to specify the brands meaning, aim and self-image. Image is both the result and interpretation thereof. In terms of brand management, identity precedes image. Before projecting an image to the public, we must know exactly what we want to project. Before it is received, we must know what to send and how to send it. As shown in Figure 7.1, an image is a synthesis made by the public of all the various brand messages, eg brand name, visual symbols, products, advertisements, sponsoring, patronage, articles. An image results from decoding a message, extracting meaning, interpreting signs. Where do all these signs come from? There are two possible sources: brand identity of course, but also extraneous factors (‘noise) that speak in the brands name and thus produce meaning, however disconnected they may actually be from it. What are these extraneous factors? First, there are companies that choose to imitate competitors, as they have no clear idea of what their own brand identity is. They focus on their competitors and imitate their marketing communication. Second, there are companies that are obsessed with the willingness to build an appealing image that will be favourably perceived by all. So they focus on meeting every one of the publics expectations. That is how the brand gets caught in the game of always having to please the consumer and ends up surfing on the changing waves of social and cultural fads. Yesterday, brands were into glamour, today, they are into ‘cocooning; so whats next? The brand can appear opportunistic and popularity seeking, and thus devoid of any meaningful substance. It becomes a mere faà §ade, a meaningless cosmetic camouflage. The third source of ‘noise is that of fantasised identity: the brand as one would ideally like to see it, but not as it actually is. As a result, we notice, albeit too late, that the advertisements do not help people remember the brand because they are either too remotely connected to it or so radically disconnected from it that they cause perplexity or rejection. Since brand identity has now been recognised as the prevailing concept, these three potential communication glitches can be prevented. The identity concept thus serves to emphasise the fact that, with time, brands do eventually gain their independence and their own meaning, even though they may start out as mere product names. As living memories of past products and advertisements, brands do not simply fade away: they define their own area of competence, potential and legitimacy. Yet they also know when to stay out of other areas. We cannot expect a brand to be anything other than itself. Obviously, brands should not curl up in a shell and cut themselves off from the public and from market evolutions. However, an obsession with image can lead them to capitalise too much on appearance and not enough on essence. Identity and positioning It is also common to distinguish brands according to their positioning. Positioning a brand means emphasising the distinctive characteristics that make it different from its competitors and appealing to the public. It results from an analytical process based on the four following questions: A brand for what benefit? This refers to the brand promise and consumer benefit aspect: Orangina has real orange pulp, The Body Shop is environment friendly, Twix gets rid of hunger, Volkswagen is reliable. A brand for whom? This refers to the target aspect. For a long time, Schweppes was the drink of the refined, Snapple the soft drink for adults, Tango or Yoohoo the drink for teenagers. Reason? This refers to the elements, factual or subjective, that support the claimed benefit. A brand against whom? In todays competitive context, this question defines the main competitor(s), ie those whose clientele we think we can partly capture. Tuborg and other expensive imported beers thus also compete against whisky, gin and vodka. Positioning is a crucial concept (Figure 7.2). It reminds us that all consumer choices are made on the basis of comparison. Thus, a product will only be considered if it is clearly part of a selection process. Hence the four questions that help position the new product or brand and make its contribution immediately obvious to the customer. Positioning is a two-stage process: First, indicate to what ‘competitive set the brand should be associated and compared. Second, indicate what the brands essential difference and raison dà ªtre is in comparison to the other products and brands of that set. Choosing the competitive set is essential. While this may be quite easy to do for a new toothpaste, it is not so for very original and unique products. The Gaines burger launched by the Gaines company, for instance, was a new dog food, a semi-dehydrated product presented as red ground meat in a round shape like a hamburger. Unlike normal canned pet foods, moreover, it did not need to be refrigerated, nor did it exude that normal open-can smell. Given these characteristics, the product could be positioned in several different ways, for example by: Attacking the canned pet food market by appealing to well-to-do dog owners. The gist of the message would then be ‘the can without the can, in other words, the benefits of meat without its inconveniences (smell, freshness constraints, etc). Attacking the dehydrated pet food segment (dried pellets) by offering a product that would help the owner not to feel guilty for not giving meat to the dog on the basis that it is just not practical. The fresh-ground, round look could justify this positioning. Targeting owners who feed leftovers to their dogs by presenting Gaines as a complete, nutritious supplement (and no longer as a main meal as in the two former strategies). Targeting all dog owners by presenting this product as a nutritious treat, a kind of doggy Mars bar. The choice between these alternative strategies was made by assessing each one against certain measurable criteria (Table 7.1). The firm ended up choosing the first positioning and launched this product as the ‘Gaines burger. What does the identity concept add to that of positioning? Why do we even need another concept? In the first place, because positioning focuses more on the product itself. What then does positioning mean in the case of a multiproduct brand? How can these four questions on positioning be answered if we are not focusing on one particular product category? We know how to position the various Scotchbrite scrubbing pads as well as the Scotch videotapes, but what does the positioning concept mean for the Scotch brand as a whole, not to mention the 3M corporate brand? This is precisely where the concept of brand identity comes in handy. Second, positioning does not reveal all the brands richness of meaning nor reflect all of its potential. The brand is restricted once reduced to four questions. Positioning does not help fully differentiate Coca-Cola from Pepsi-Cola. The four positioning questions thus fail to encapsulate such nuances. They do not allow us to fully explore the identity and singularity of the brand. Worse still, positioning allows communication to be entirely dictated by creative whims and current fads. Positioning does not say a word about communication style, form or spirit. This is a major deficiency since brands have the gift of speech: they state both the objective and subjective qualities of a given product. The speech they deliver in these days of multimedia supremacy is made of words, of course, but even more of pictures, sounds, colours, movement and style. Positioning controls the words only, leaving the rest up to the unpredictable outcome of creative hunches and pretests. Yet brand language should never result from creativity only. It expresses the brands personality and values. Creative hunches are only useful if they are consistent with the brands legitimate territory. Furthermore, though pretest evaluations are needed to verify that the brands message is well received, the public should not be allowed to dictate brand language: its style needs to be found within itself. Brand uniqueness often tends to get eroded by consumer expectations and thus starts regressing to a level at which it risks losing its identity. Table 7.1 How to evaluate and choose a brand positioning Are the products current looks and ingredients compatible with this positioning? How strong is the assumed consumer motivation behind this positioning? (what insight?) What size of market is involved by such a positioning? Is this positioning credible? Does it capitalise on a competitors actual or latent durable weakness? What financial means are required by such a positioning? Is this positioning specific and distinctive? Is this a sustainable positioning which cannot be imitated by competitors? Does this positioning leave any possibility for an alternative solution in case of failure? Does this positioning justify a price premium? Is there a growth potential under this positioning? A brands message is the outward expression of the brands inner substance. Thus we can no longer dissociate brand substance from brand style, ie from its verbal, visual and musical attributes. Brand identity provides the framework for overall brand coherence. It is a concept that serves to offset the limitations of positioning and to monitor the means of expression, the unity and durability of a brand. Why brands need identity and positioning A brands positioning is a key concept in its management. It is based on one fundamental principle: all choices are comparative. Remember that identity expresses the brands tangible and intangible characteristics everything that makes the brand what it is, and without which it would be something different. Identity draws upon the brands roots and heritage everything that gives it its unique authority and legitimacy within a realm of precise values and benefits. Positioning is competitive: when it comes to brands, customers make a choice, but with products, they make a comparison. This raises two questions. First, what do they compare it with? For this, we need to look at the field of competition: what area do we want to be considered as part of? Second, what are we offering the customer as a key decision-making factor? A brand that does not position itself leaves these two questions unanswered. It is a mistake to suppose that customers will find answers themselves: there are too many choices available today for customers to make the effort to work out what makes a particular brand specific. Communicating this information is the responsibility of the brand. Remember, products increase customer choice; brands simplify it. This is why a brand that does not want to stand for something stands for nothing. The aim of positioning is to identify, and take possession of, a strong purchasing rationale that gives us a real or perceived advantage. It implies a desire to take up a long-term position and defend it. Positioning is competition-oriented: it specifies the best way to attack competitors market share. It may change through time: one grows by expanding the field of competition. Identity is more stable and long-lasting, for it is tied to the brand roots and fixed parameters. Thus Cokes positioning was ‘the original as long as it competed against other colas. To grow the business, it now competes against all soft drinks: its positioning is ‘the most refreshing bond between people of the world, whereas its identity remains ‘the symbol of America, the essence of the American way of life. How is positioning achieved? The standard positioning formula is as follows: For †¦ (definition of target market) Brand X is †¦ (definition of frame of reference and subjective category) Which gives the most †¦ (promise or consumer benefit) Because of †¦ (reason to believe). Let us look at these points in detail. The target specifies the nature and psycho-logical or sociological profile of the individuals to be influenced, that is, buyers or potential consumers. The frame of reference is the subjective definition of the category, which will specify the nature of the competition. What other brands or products effectively serve the same purpose? This is a strategic decision: it marks out the ‘field of battle. It must not under any circumstances be confused with the objective description of the product or category. For example, there is no real rum market in the UK, yet Bacardi is very popular. This is because it is perfectly possible to drink Bacardi without realising that it is a rum: it is the party mixer par excellence. Another example illustrates the strategic importance of defining the frame of reference. Objectively speaking, Perrier is fizzy mineral water. Subjectively, however, it is also a drink for adults. Seen in the light of this field of reference, it acquires its strongest competitive advantage: a slight natural quirkiness. As we can see, the choice of the field of competition should be informed by the strategic value of that field: how big, how fast growing, how profitable? But it also lends the brand a competitive advantage through its identity and potential. Perceived as water for the table, Perrier has no significant competitive advantage over other fizzy mineral waters, even though this market is a very large one. However, when viewed in relation to a field of competition defined as ‘drinks for adults, Perrier becomes competitive again: it has strong differentiating advantages. What are its competitors? They include alcoholic drinks, Diet Coke, Schweppes and tomato juice. The third point specifies the aspect of difference which creates the preference and the choice of a decisive competitive advantage: it may be expressed in terms of a promise (for instance, Volvo is the strongest of all cars) or a benefit (such as, Volvo is the ‘safety brand). The fourth point reinforces the promise or benefit, and is known as the ‘reason to believe. For example, in the case of the Dove brand, which promises to be the most moisturising, the reason is that all of its products contain 25 per cent of moisturising cream. Positioning is a necessary concept, first because all choices are comparative, and so it makes sense to start off by stating the area in which we are strongest; and second because in marketing, perception is reality. Positioning is a concept which starts with customers, by putting ourselves in their place: faced with a plethora of brands, are consumers able to identify the strong point of each, the factor that distinguishes it from the rest? This is why, ideally, a customer should be capable of paraphrasing a brands positioning: ‘Only Brand X will do this for me, because it has, or it is †¦ No instrument is entirely neutral. The above formula was created by companies such as Kraft-General Foods, Procter Gamble, and Unilever. It is designed for businesses that base competitive advantage on their products, and works perfectly for the lOrà ©al Group which, with its 2,500 researchers worldwide, only ever launches new products if they are of demonstrably superior performance. This fact is then promoted through advertising. There are cases where the brand makes no promise, or where the benefit it brings could sound trivial. For example, how would you define the positioning of a perfume such as Obsession by Calvin Klein in a way that clearly represented its true nature and originality? It would be wrong to claim that Obsession makes any specific promise to its customers, or that they will obtain any particular benefit from the product apart from feeling good (a property which is common to all perfumes). In reality, Obsessions attractiveness stems from its imagery, the imaginary world of subversive androgyny which it embodies. In the same way, Mugler appeals to young people through its inherently neofuturistic world, and Chanel stands for timeless elegance. What actually sells these perfumes is the satisfaction derived from participating in the symbolic world of the brand. The same is true of alcohol and spirits: Jack Daniels is selling a symbolic participation in an eternal, authentic untamed America. To say that Jack Daniels is selling the satisfaction of being the finest choice would be a mere commonplace, like the tired old clichà © that customers are satisfied at having made a choice that set them apart from the masses (a classic benefit stated by small brands attempting to emphasise their advantage over large ones). Faced with this conceptual dilemma, there are three possible approaches. The first of these is to define positioning as the sum of every point that differentiates the brand. This has been Unilevers approach: the 60page mini-opus known as the Brand Key, which explains how to define a brand across the entire world, starts with the phrase: ‘Brand Key builds on and replaces the brand positioning statement †¦. There are eight headings to Brand Key: 1. The competitive environment. 2. The target. 3. The consumer insight on which the brand is based. 4. The benefits brought by the brand. 5. Brand values and personality. 6. The reasons to believe. 7. The discriminator (single most compelling reason to choose). 8. The brand essence. Fundamentally, therefore, this collection forms the positioning of a brand. However, the concept that most closely resembles positioning in the strict sense of the word is referred to here as the ‘discriminator. McDonalds also adopts a similar reasoning (see Figure 7.3). Larry Light defends the idea that positioning is defined when this chain of means-ends is completed (this is a parallel concept to the ‘ladder moving from the tangible to the intangible): My position is that two tools are needed to manage the brand. One defines the brands identity, while the other is competitive and specifies the competitive proposition made at any given time in any given market. This is the brands unique compelling competitive proposition (UCCP). Thus the tool called ‘brand platform will comprise, first, the ‘brand identity, that is to say, brand uniqueness and singularity throughout the world and whatever the product. Brand identity has six facets, and is therefore larger than the mere positioning. It is represented by the identity prism. At its centre one finds the brand essence, the central value it symbolises. Second, the brand platform comprises ‘brand positioning: choosing a market means choosing a specific angle to attack it. Brand positioning must be based on a customer insight relevant to this market. Brand positioning exploits one of the brand identity facets. Positioning can be summed up in four key questions: for whom, why, when and against whom? It can be represented in the form of a diamond, the ‘positioning diamond (see Figure 7.2, page 176). In positioning, the brand/product makes a proposition, plus (necessarily) a promise. The proposition may additionally be supported by a ‘reason to believe, but this is not essential. Marlboro presents its smoker as a man a real man, symbolised by the untamed cowboy of the Wild West. No support is offered for this proposition; no proof is necessary. It is true because the brand says so. And the more often it is repeated, the more credible it becomes. In this way the brands proposition, which forms the basis of the chosen positioning at a given moment in a particular market, may be fuelled by various ‘edges contained within the brands identity: a differentiating attribute (25 per cent moisturising cream in Dove, the smoothness and bite of Mars bars, the bubbles of Perrier); an objective benefit: an iMac is user friendly, Dell offers unbeatable value for money; a subjective benefit: you feel secure with IBM; an aspect of the brands personality: the mystery of the Bacardi bat, Jack Daniels is macho, Axe/Lynx is cool; Concepts of Brand Identity and Positioning Concepts of Brand Identity and Positioning A brand is not the name of a product. It is the vision that drives the creation of products and services under that name. That vision, the key belief of the brands and its core values is called identity. It drives vibrant brands able to create advocates, a real cult and loyalty. Modern competition calls for two essential tools of brand management: ‘brand identity, specifying the facets of brands uniqueness and value, and ‘brand positioning, the main difference creating preference in a specific market at a specific time for its products. For existing brands, identity is the source of brand positioning. Brand positioning specifies the angle used by the products of that brand to attack a market in order to grow their market share at the expense of competition. Defining what a brand is made of helps answer many questions that are asked every day, such as: Can the brand sponsor such and such event or sport? Does the advertising campaign suit the brand? Is the opportunity for launching a new product inside the brands boundaries or outside? How can the brand change its communication style, yet remain true to itself? How can decision making in communications be decentralised regionally or internationally, without jeopardising brand congruence? All such decisions pose the problem of brand identity and definition which are essential prerequisites for efficient brand management. Brand identity: a necessary concept Like the ideas of brand vision and purpose, the concept of brand identity is recent. It started in Europe (Kapferer, 1986).The perception of its paramount importance has slowly gained worldwide recognition; in the most widely read American book on brand equity (Aaker, 1991), the word ‘identity is in fact totally absent, as is the concept. Today, most advanced marketing companies have specified the identity of their brand through proprietary models such as ‘brand key (Unilever), ‘footprint (Johnson Johnson), ‘bulls eyes and ‘brand stewardship, which organise in a specific form a list of concepts related to brand identity. However, they are rather checklists. Is identity a sheer linguistic novelty, or is it essential to understanding what brands are? What is identity? To appreciate the meaning of this significant concept in brand management, we shall begin by considering the many ways in which the word is used today. For example, we speak of ‘identity cards a personal, non-transferable document that tells in a few words who we are, what our name is and what distinguishable features we have that can be instantly recognised. We also hear of ‘identity of opinion between several people, meaning that they have an identical point of view. In terms of communication, this second interpretation of the word suggests brand identity is the common element sending a single message amid the wide variety of its products, actions and communications. This is important since the more the brand expands and diversifies, the more customers are inclined to feel that they are, in fact, dealing with several different brands rather than a single one. If products and communication go their separate ways, how can customers possibly perceive these different routes as converging towards a common vision and brand? Speaking of identical points of view also raises the question of permanence and continuity. As civil status and physical appearance change, identity cards get updated, yet the fingerprint of their holders always remains the same. The identity concept questions how time will affect the unique and permanent quality of the sender, the brand or the retailer. In this respect, psychologists speak of the ‘identity crisis which adolescents often go through. When their identity structure is still weak, teenagers tend to move from one role model to another. These constant shifts create a gap and force the basic question: ‘What is the real me? Finally, in studies on social groups or minorities, we often speak of ‘cultural identity. In seeking an identity, they are in fact seeking a pivotal basis on which to hinge not only their inherent difference but also their membership of a specific cultural entity. Brand identity may be a recent notion, but many researchers have already delved into the organisational identity of companies (Schwebig, 1988; Moingeon and Soenen, 2003). There, the simplest verbal expression of identity often consists in saying: ‘Oh, yes, I see, but its not the same in our company! In other words, corporate identity is what helps an organisation, or a part of it, feel that it truly exists and that it is a coherent and unique being, with a history and a place of its own, different from others. From these various meanings, we can infer that having an identity means being your true self, driven by a personal goal that is both different from others and resistant to change. Thus, brand identity will be clearly defined once the following questions are answered: What is the brands particular vision and aim? What makes it different? What need is the brand fulfilling? What is its permanent nature? What are its value or values? What is its field of competence? Of legitimacy? What are the signs which make the brand recognisable? These questions could indeed constitute the brands charter. This type of official document would help better brand management in the medium term, both in terms of form and content, and so better address future communication and extension issues. Communication tools such as the copy strategy are essentially linked to advertising campaigns, and so are only committed to the short term. There must be specific guidelines to ensure that there is indeed only one brand forming a solid and coherent entity. Brand identity and graphic identity charters Many readers will make the point that their firms already make use of graphic identity ‘bibles, either for corporate or specific brand purposes. We do indeed find many graphic identity charters, books of standards and visual identity guides. Urged on by graphic identity agencies, companies have rightly sought to harmonise the messages conveyed by their brands. Such charters therefore define the norms for visual recognition of the brand, ie the brands colours, graphic design and type of print. Although this may be a necessary first step, it isnt the be all and end all. Moreover, it puts the cart before the horse. What really matters is the key message that we want to communicate. Formal aspects, outward appearance and overall looks result from the brands core substance and intrinsic identity. Choosing symbols requires a clear definition of what the brand means. However, while graphic manuals are quite easy to find nowadays, explicit definitions of brand identity per se are still very rare. Yet, the essential questions above (ie the nature of the identity to be conveyed) must be properly answered before we begin discussing and defining what the communication means and what the codes of outward recognition should be. The brands deepest values must be reflected in the external signs of recognition, and these must be apparent at first glance. The family resemblance between the various models of BMW conveys a strong identity, yet it is not the identity. This brands identity and essence can actually be defined by addressing the issue of its difference, its permanence, its value and its personal view on automobiles. Many firms have unnecessarily constrained their brand because they formulated a graphic charter before defining their identity. Not knowing who they really are, they merely perpetuate purely formal codes by, for example, using a certain photographic style that may not be the most suitable. Thus Nina Riccis identity did not necessarily relate to the companys systematic adherence to English photographer David Hamiltons style. Knowing brand identity paradoxically gives extra freedom of expression, since it emphasises the pre-eminence of substance over strictly formal features. Brand identity defines what must stay and what is free to change. Brands are living systems. They must have degrees of freedom to match modern market diversity. Identity: a contemporary concept That a new concept identity has emerged in the field of management, already well versed in brand image and positioning, is really no great surprise. Todays problems are more complex than those of 10 or 20 years ago and so there is now a need for more refined concepts that allow a closer connection with reality. First of all, we cannot overemphasise the fact that we are currently living in a society saturated in communications. Everybody wants to communicate these days. If needed, proof is available: there have been huge increases in advertising budgets, not only in the major media but also in the growing number of professional magazines. It has become very difficult to survive in the hurly-burly thus created, let alone to thrive and successfully convey ones identity. For communication means two things: sending out messages and making sure that they are received. Communicating nowadays is no longer just a technique, it is a feat in itself. The second factor explaining the urgent need to understand brand identity is the pressure constantly put on brands. We have now entered an age of marketing similarities. When a brand innovates, it creates a new standard. The other brands must then catch up if they want to stay in the race, hence the increasing number of ‘me-too products with similar attributes, not to mention the copies produced by distributors. Regulations also cause similarities to spread. Bank operations, for example, have become so much alike that banks are now unable to fully express their individuality and identity. Market research also generates herdism within a given sector. As all companies base themselves on the same life-style studies, the conclusions they reach are bound to be similar as are the products and advertising campaigns they launch, in which sometimes even the same words are used. Finally, technology is responsible for growing similarity. Why do cars increasingly look alike, in spite of their different makes? Because car makers are all equally concerned about fluidity, inner car space constraints, motorisation and economy, and these problems cannot be solved in all that many different ways. Moreover, when the models of four car brands (Audi, Volkswagen, Seat and Skoda) share many identical parts (eg chassis, engine, gearbox), for either productivity or competitiveness purposes, it is mainly brand identity, along with, to a lesser extent, whats left of each car, which will distinguish the makes from one another. Diversification calls for knowing the brands identity. Brands launch new products, penetrate new markets and reach new targets. This may cause both fragmented communications and patchwork images. Though we are still able to discern bits and pieces of the brand here and there, we are certainly unable to perceive its global and coherent identity. Why speak of identity rather than image? What does the notion of identity have to offer that the image of a brand or a company or a retailer doesnt have? After all, firms spend large amounts of money measuring image. Brand image is on the receivers side. Image research focuses on the way in which certain groups perceive a product, a brand, a politician, a company or a country. The image refers to the way in which these groups decode all of the signals emanating from the products, services and communication covered by the brand. Identity is on the senders side. The purpose, in this case, is to specify the brands meaning, aim and self-image. Image is both the result and interpretation thereof. In terms of brand management, identity precedes image. Before projecting an image to the public, we must know exactly what we want to project. Before it is received, we must know what to send and how to send it. As shown in Figure 7.1, an image is a synthesis made by the public of all the various brand messages, eg brand name, visual symbols, products, advertisements, sponsoring, patronage, articles. An image results from decoding a message, extracting meaning, interpreting signs. Where do all these signs come from? There are two possible sources: brand identity of course, but also extraneous factors (‘noise) that speak in the brands name and thus produce meaning, however disconnected they may actually be from it. What are these extraneous factors? First, there are companies that choose to imitate competitors, as they have no clear idea of what their own brand identity is. They focus on their competitors and imitate their marketing communication. Second, there are companies that are obsessed with the willingness to build an appealing image that will be favourably perceived by all. So they focus on meeting every one of the publics expectations. That is how the brand gets caught in the game of always having to please the consumer and ends up surfing on the changing waves of social and cultural fads. Yesterday, brands were into glamour, today, they are into ‘cocooning; so whats next? The brand can appear opportunistic and popularity seeking, and thus devoid of any meaningful substance. It becomes a mere faà §ade, a meaningless cosmetic camouflage. The third source of ‘noise is that of fantasised identity: the brand as one would ideally like to see it, but not as it actually is. As a result, we notice, albeit too late, that the advertisements do not help people remember the brand because they are either too remotely connected to it or so radically disconnected from it that they cause perplexity or rejection. Since brand identity has now been recognised as the prevailing concept, these three potential communication glitches can be prevented. The identity concept thus serves to emphasise the fact that, with time, brands do eventually gain their independence and their own meaning, even though they may start out as mere product names. As living memories of past products and advertisements, brands do not simply fade away: they define their own area of competence, potential and legitimacy. Yet they also know when to stay out of other areas. We cannot expect a brand to be anything other than itself. Obviously, brands should not curl up in a shell and cut themselves off from the public and from market evolutions. However, an obsession with image can lead them to capitalise too much on appearance and not enough on essence. Identity and positioning It is also common to distinguish brands according to their positioning. Positioning a brand means emphasising the distinctive characteristics that make it different from its competitors and appealing to the public. It results from an analytical process based on the four following questions: A brand for what benefit? This refers to the brand promise and consumer benefit aspect: Orangina has real orange pulp, The Body Shop is environment friendly, Twix gets rid of hunger, Volkswagen is reliable. A brand for whom? This refers to the target aspect. For a long time, Schweppes was the drink of the refined, Snapple the soft drink for adults, Tango or Yoohoo the drink for teenagers. Reason? This refers to the elements, factual or subjective, that support the claimed benefit. A brand against whom? In todays competitive context, this question defines the main competitor(s), ie those whose clientele we think we can partly capture. Tuborg and other expensive imported beers thus also compete against whisky, gin and vodka. Positioning is a crucial concept (Figure 7.2). It reminds us that all consumer choices are made on the basis of comparison. Thus, a product will only be considered if it is clearly part of a selection process. Hence the four questions that help position the new product or brand and make its contribution immediately obvious to the customer. Positioning is a two-stage process: First, indicate to what ‘competitive set the brand should be associated and compared. Second, indicate what the brands essential difference and raison dà ªtre is in comparison to the other products and brands of that set. Choosing the competitive set is essential. While this may be quite easy to do for a new toothpaste, it is not so for very original and unique products. The Gaines burger launched by the Gaines company, for instance, was a new dog food, a semi-dehydrated product presented as red ground meat in a round shape like a hamburger. Unlike normal canned pet foods, moreover, it did not need to be refrigerated, nor did it exude that normal open-can smell. Given these characteristics, the product could be positioned in several different ways, for example by: Attacking the canned pet food market by appealing to well-to-do dog owners. The gist of the message would then be ‘the can without the can, in other words, the benefits of meat without its inconveniences (smell, freshness constraints, etc). Attacking the dehydrated pet food segment (dried pellets) by offering a product that would help the owner not to feel guilty for not giving meat to the dog on the basis that it is just not practical. The fresh-ground, round look could justify this positioning. Targeting owners who feed leftovers to their dogs by presenting Gaines as a complete, nutritious supplement (and no longer as a main meal as in the two former strategies). Targeting all dog owners by presenting this product as a nutritious treat, a kind of doggy Mars bar. The choice between these alternative strategies was made by assessing each one against certain measurable criteria (Table 7.1). The firm ended up choosing the first positioning and launched this product as the ‘Gaines burger. What does the identity concept add to that of positioning? Why do we even need another concept? In the first place, because positioning focuses more on the product itself. What then does positioning mean in the case of a multiproduct brand? How can these four questions on positioning be answered if we are not focusing on one particular product category? We know how to position the various Scotchbrite scrubbing pads as well as the Scotch videotapes, but what does the positioning concept mean for the Scotch brand as a whole, not to mention the 3M corporate brand? This is precisely where the concept of brand identity comes in handy. Second, positioning does not reveal all the brands richness of meaning nor reflect all of its potential. The brand is restricted once reduced to four questions. Positioning does not help fully differentiate Coca-Cola from Pepsi-Cola. The four positioning questions thus fail to encapsulate such nuances. They do not allow us to fully explore the identity and singularity of the brand. Worse still, positioning allows communication to be entirely dictated by creative whims and current fads. Positioning does not say a word about communication style, form or spirit. This is a major deficiency since brands have the gift of speech: they state both the objective and subjective qualities of a given product. The speech they deliver in these days of multimedia supremacy is made of words, of course, but even more of pictures, sounds, colours, movement and style. Positioning controls the words only, leaving the rest up to the unpredictable outcome of creative hunches and pretests. Yet brand language should never result from creativity only. It expresses the brands personality and values. Creative hunches are only useful if they are consistent with the brands legitimate territory. Furthermore, though pretest evaluations are needed to verify that the brands message is well received, the public should not be allowed to dictate brand language: its style needs to be found within itself. Brand uniqueness often tends to get eroded by consumer expectations and thus starts regressing to a level at which it risks losing its identity. Table 7.1 How to evaluate and choose a brand positioning Are the products current looks and ingredients compatible with this positioning? How strong is the assumed consumer motivation behind this positioning? (what insight?) What size of market is involved by such a positioning? Is this positioning credible? Does it capitalise on a competitors actual or latent durable weakness? What financial means are required by such a positioning? Is this positioning specific and distinctive? Is this a sustainable positioning which cannot be imitated by competitors? Does this positioning leave any possibility for an alternative solution in case of failure? Does this positioning justify a price premium? Is there a growth potential under this positioning? A brands message is the outward expression of the brands inner substance. Thus we can no longer dissociate brand substance from brand style, ie from its verbal, visual and musical attributes. Brand identity provides the framework for overall brand coherence. It is a concept that serves to offset the limitations of positioning and to monitor the means of expression, the unity and durability of a brand. Why brands need identity and positioning A brands positioning is a key concept in its management. It is based on one fundamental principle: all choices are comparative. Remember that identity expresses the brands tangible and intangible characteristics everything that makes the brand what it is, and without which it would be something different. Identity draws upon the brands roots and heritage everything that gives it its unique authority and legitimacy within a realm of precise values and benefits. Positioning is competitive: when it comes to brands, customers make a choice, but with products, they make a comparison. This raises two questions. First, what do they compare it with? For this, we need to look at the field of competition: what area do we want to be considered as part of? Second, what are we offering the customer as a key decision-making factor? A brand that does not position itself leaves these two questions unanswered. It is a mistake to suppose that customers will find answers themselves: there are too many choices available today for customers to make the effort to work out what makes a particular brand specific. Communicating this information is the responsibility of the brand. Remember, products increase customer choice; brands simplify it. This is why a brand that does not want to stand for something stands for nothing. The aim of positioning is to identify, and take possession of, a strong purchasing rationale that gives us a real or perceived advantage. It implies a desire to take up a long-term position and defend it. Positioning is competition-oriented: it specifies the best way to attack competitors market share. It may change through time: one grows by expanding the field of competition. Identity is more stable and long-lasting, for it is tied to the brand roots and fixed parameters. Thus Cokes positioning was ‘the original as long as it competed against other colas. To grow the business, it now competes against all soft drinks: its positioning is ‘the most refreshing bond between people of the world, whereas its identity remains ‘the symbol of America, the essence of the American way of life. How is positioning achieved? The standard positioning formula is as follows: For †¦ (definition of target market) Brand X is †¦ (definition of frame of reference and subjective category) Which gives the most †¦ (promise or consumer benefit) Because of †¦ (reason to believe). Let us look at these points in detail. The target specifies the nature and psycho-logical or sociological profile of the individuals to be influenced, that is, buyers or potential consumers. The frame of reference is the subjective definition of the category, which will specify the nature of the competition. What other brands or products effectively serve the same purpose? This is a strategic decision: it marks out the ‘field of battle. It must not under any circumstances be confused with the objective description of the product or category. For example, there is no real rum market in the UK, yet Bacardi is very popular. This is because it is perfectly possible to drink Bacardi without realising that it is a rum: it is the party mixer par excellence. Another example illustrates the strategic importance of defining the frame of reference. Objectively speaking, Perrier is fizzy mineral water. Subjectively, however, it is also a drink for adults. Seen in the light of this field of reference, it acquires its strongest competitive advantage: a slight natural quirkiness. As we can see, the choice of the field of competition should be informed by the strategic value of that field: how big, how fast growing, how profitable? But it also lends the brand a competitive advantage through its identity and potential. Perceived as water for the table, Perrier has no significant competitive advantage over other fizzy mineral waters, even though this market is a very large one. However, when viewed in relation to a field of competition defined as ‘drinks for adults, Perrier becomes competitive again: it has strong differentiating advantages. What are its competitors? They include alcoholic drinks, Diet Coke, Schweppes and tomato juice. The third point specifies the aspect of difference which creates the preference and the choice of a decisive competitive advantage: it may be expressed in terms of a promise (for instance, Volvo is the strongest of all cars) or a benefit (such as, Volvo is the ‘safety brand). The fourth point reinforces the promise or benefit, and is known as the ‘reason to believe. For example, in the case of the Dove brand, which promises to be the most moisturising, the reason is that all of its products contain 25 per cent of moisturising cream. Positioning is a necessary concept, first because all choices are comparative, and so it makes sense to start off by stating the area in which we are strongest; and second because in marketing, perception is reality. Positioning is a concept which starts with customers, by putting ourselves in their place: faced with a plethora of brands, are consumers able to identify the strong point of each, the factor that distinguishes it from the rest? This is why, ideally, a customer should be capable of paraphrasing a brands positioning: ‘Only Brand X will do this for me, because it has, or it is †¦ No instrument is entirely neutral. The above formula was created by companies such as Kraft-General Foods, Procter Gamble, and Unilever. It is designed for businesses that base competitive advantage on their products, and works perfectly for the lOrà ©al Group which, with its 2,500 researchers worldwide, only ever launches new products if they are of demonstrably superior performance. This fact is then promoted through advertising. There are cases where the brand makes no promise, or where the benefit it brings could sound trivial. For example, how would you define the positioning of a perfume such as Obsession by Calvin Klein in a way that clearly represented its true nature and originality? It would be wrong to claim that Obsession makes any specific promise to its customers, or that they will obtain any particular benefit from the product apart from feeling good (a property which is common to all perfumes). In reality, Obsessions attractiveness stems from its imagery, the imaginary world of subversive androgyny which it embodies. In the same way, Mugler appeals to young people through its inherently neofuturistic world, and Chanel stands for timeless elegance. What actually sells these perfumes is the satisfaction derived from participating in the symbolic world of the brand. The same is true of alcohol and spirits: Jack Daniels is selling a symbolic participation in an eternal, authentic untamed America. To say that Jack Daniels is selling the satisfaction of being the finest choice would be a mere commonplace, like the tired old clichà © that customers are satisfied at having made a choice that set them apart from the masses (a classic benefit stated by small brands attempting to emphasise their advantage over large ones). Faced with this conceptual dilemma, there are three possible approaches. The first of these is to define positioning as the sum of every point that differentiates the brand. This has been Unilevers approach: the 60page mini-opus known as the Brand Key, which explains how to define a brand across the entire world, starts with the phrase: ‘Brand Key builds on and replaces the brand positioning statement †¦. There are eight headings to Brand Key: 1. The competitive environment. 2. The target. 3. The consumer insight on which the brand is based. 4. The benefits brought by the brand. 5. Brand values and personality. 6. The reasons to believe. 7. The discriminator (single most compelling reason to choose). 8. The brand essence. Fundamentally, therefore, this collection forms the positioning of a brand. However, the concept that most closely resembles positioning in the strict sense of the word is referred to here as the ‘discriminator. McDonalds also adopts a similar reasoning (see Figure 7.3). Larry Light defends the idea that positioning is defined when this chain of means-ends is completed (this is a parallel concept to the ‘ladder moving from the tangible to the intangible): My position is that two tools are needed to manage the brand. One defines the brands identity, while the other is competitive and specifies the competitive proposition made at any given time in any given market. This is the brands unique compelling competitive proposition (UCCP). Thus the tool called ‘brand platform will comprise, first, the ‘brand identity, that is to say, brand uniqueness and singularity throughout the world and whatever the product. Brand identity has six facets, and is therefore larger than the mere positioning. It is represented by the identity prism. At its centre one finds the brand essence, the central value it symbolises. Second, the brand platform comprises ‘brand positioning: choosing a market means choosing a specific angle to attack it. Brand positioning must be based on a customer insight relevant to this market. Brand positioning exploits one of the brand identity facets. Positioning can be summed up in four key questions: for whom, why, when and against whom? It can be represented in the form of a diamond, the ‘positioning diamond (see Figure 7.2, page 176). In positioning, the brand/product makes a proposition, plus (necessarily) a promise. The proposition may additionally be supported by a ‘reason to believe, but this is not essential. Marlboro presents its smoker as a man a real man, symbolised by the untamed cowboy of the Wild West. No support is offered for this proposition; no proof is necessary. It is true because the brand says so. And the more often it is repeated, the more credible it becomes. In this way the brands proposition, which forms the basis of the chosen positioning at a given moment in a particular market, may be fuelled by various ‘edges contained within the brands identity: a differentiating attribute (25 per cent moisturising cream in Dove, the smoothness and bite of Mars bars, the bubbles of Perrier); an objective benefit: an iMac is user friendly, Dell offers unbeatable value for money; a subjective benefit: you feel secure with IBM; an aspect of the brands personality: the mystery of the Bacardi bat, Jack Daniels is macho, Axe/Lynx is cool;